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■(.■

THE

ROTHAMSTED MEMOIRS

AGRICTJLTUKAL CHEMISTEY

AXD

PHYSIOLOGY.

fiiB JOHN BENNET LA WES, Babt., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.O.a, &a

OF ROTHAMSTED, BERTH.,
AND

SiB JOSEPH HENBY GILBEBT, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.B.S., VJP.O.S., <S

Volume II.

CONTAINING REPORTS Of EXPERIMENTS,

ON THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS,
SEWAGE UTILISATION,

dc., dc.
Published 1849 — 1863 inolusive.

LONDON:
FBlNTBD BY WILLL^ CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

STAHFORD STREET 'AND CHARINO CROSS.

1893.

THE

ROTHAMSTED MEMOIRS

AGEICULTUEAL CHEMISTKY

AND

PHYSIOLOGY.

8iB JOHN BENNET LAWES, Babt., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.O.S., &o.,

OF ROTHAMSTED, HEBTri.,
AND

Sib JOSEPH HENEY GILBERT, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., VJP.O.S., &<

Volume II.

CONTAINING REPORTS Of EXPERIMENTS,

ON THE FEEDING OF ANIBIALS,

SEWAGE UTILISATION,
dc, dc.

Published 1849 — 18G3 inolusive.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

STAMFORD STREET AND CUAUIKG CROSS.

1893.

■pO'-e/-

23 S '899

ROTIIAMSTED MEMOIRS.

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

HEPORTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS,

SEWAGE UTILISATION, &c., &c.

PubUshvd

1. Agricultural Chemistry ; Sheep-Feeding and Manure. Parti. (With

Tabular Appendix in 1856) (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. Eng., vol. x.,

p« Z/o.^ .. .. .. .. .. .« ,. lo^cf

2. Report of Elxperiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualities of

different Breeds of Sheep ; Hampshire and Sussex Downs (Jour.
Roy. Ag. Soc. Eng., vol. xii., p. 414.) .. 1851

3. Report of Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualities of

different Breeds of Sheep ; Cots wolds (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. Eng.,

voL xiii., p. 179.) .. 1852

4. On the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the

Feeding of Animak (Report of the Britihh Association for the
Advancement of Science for 1852) .. 1852

5. Agricultural Chemistry; Pig Feeding (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. EDg.,

vol. xi v., p. 459.) .. 1853

6. On the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food (Report of the

British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1854) .. 1854

7. Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualities of different

Breeds of Sheep ; Leicestcrs and Cross-breds (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc.
Eng., vol. xvL, p. 45.) . . . . 1855

8. On the Sewage of London (Journal of the Society of Arts, March 7,

0. Letter on the Utilisation of Town Sewage (from the ** Report"
" Ordered, by the House of Commons, to be printed, Aug. 3, 1857."
Appendix xii., p. 477.) 1857

10. Experimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of the Animals

fed and slaughtered as Huruan Food — Abstract (Proceedings of

the Royal Society of London, vol. ix., p. 348.) .. 185S

11. Observations on the recently-introduced Manufactured Foods for

Agricultuj»J -Stock (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. Eng., \oV. x\3l., v* Vs^i.^ V^^^

CONTENTS OF VOL. II.

12. On the Composition of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs, and of their Increase

whilst Fattening (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soo. Eng., vol. xxi., p. 433.) . .

13. On the Composition of the Animal portion of our Food, and on its

relation to Bread — Abstract (Jour. Chem. Soc, vol. xii., p. 54.)

14. Fifth Report of Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep (Jour. Roy.

Ag. Soc. Eng., vol. xxiL, p. 189.)

15. Report of Experiments on the Fattening of Oxen at Woburn Park

Farm (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. Eng., vol. xxii., p. 200.)

16. Experiments on the question whether the use of Condiments increases

the Assimilation of Food by Fattening AnimaL^ or adds to the
Profits of the Feeder (Edinburgh Veterinary Review and Annals
of Comparative Pathology, July, 1862)

17. Supplementary Report of Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep

(Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. Eng., vol. xxiii., p. 191.)

18. The Utilisation of Town Sewage (Jour. Roy. Ag. Soc. Eng.,

vol. 2LX1V., p. uO. 1 .. .. .. .. ..

Published
1860

18G0

18G1

1861

1862

1863

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

SHEEP -FEEDING AND MANURE.

By J. B. LAWES,

PAKT I.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD 8TRKRT.

1849.

PROM THE
JOURNAL OP THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOaCTY OP ENGLAND

VQL. X., PART I.

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

SHEEP-FEEDING AND MANURE,

PART I.

A PROMINENT feature in the best agriculture of Great Britain is
the concentration of produce on the land^ hy means of the purchase
of cattle-food or direc^t manures; and it maj safely be affirmed
that, with a rapidly increasing population and a limited area of land,
this system must become more and more general if the enhanced
demand (or human food is to be in any degree adequately met
by the supplies of the British farmer. The importance to him^
therefore, of a clear conc^tion of the nature and sources of raliM
of manuring substances generally, as well as of the i^racierislie
differences or identity of those derived from the various resources
at his command, will at once be obvious ; yet, it wilt be admitted
that even the most intelligent and observant practical farmer is
far from possessing that clear and definite conception of the
rationale of the practices he adopts, which alone can prove an
unerring guide in his operations, and ensure such conduct of
them in detail as is consistent with true economy, and calculated
to yield the full advantages which a perfect applicatioa of their
inherent principle must attain. Much has, however, been dona
of lajte years, both by societies and individuals, towards providing
that basis of facta without which fixed principles in agriculture,
and a right understanding of the practices already appfo\'ed by
experience, cannot be attained ; yet, much remains to be done
beibre even the more general and fundamental usages can he
satisfactorily explained, whilst the circumstances of their local
adaptation may be said to constitute a distinct and not less
important, and at the same time more extensive and permanent,
field of inquiry.

The growth pf green and fodder crops, to be consumed by
animals upon the farm, is recognised as a most importsni source
of manure, and it is decided by the practice of thi best larssers,
that the full advantages which such a course is cosqpetent to yield
are only attainable when it is aided by the purchase of foreiignt
food for home consumption, or by the direct supfdy of purchancd
manure, and it is indeed probable that increased production nt
home is far more necessarily dependent on the accumulailioa
of material from external resources than is usually supposed*,
Before, however, the exact economical eSectsof alternate cropping »
the Qonsumption upon the farm of roots or other bosift \)fi%^<(^
tions, or of purchaied food, or the supply o£ Sooe^^ia \A«aiK^» WBt

4 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure,

be clearly appreciated or explained, much precise information has
yet to be provided, as to the chemical circumstances connected
with the growth and appropriation of the more important plants
which enter into rotation, and the employment of food and manure
from abroad ; and the investigation which we have in progress has
been designed more especially with a view to providing data
which may legitimately serve to elucidate these more fundamental
practices of an improved agriculture. The more important ques-
tions connected with such an inquiry relate — to the conditions re-
quired for the growth of wheat and the allied cereal grains, which
constitute so material a proportion of the saleable products of the
farm, and the nature of the exhaustion resulting from their growth
and export — to the growth, and sources of restorative influence,
of root-crops — to the growth of the more important agricultural
plants of the leguminous family, both those which are cultivated
for their seeds, perhaps to be sold off the farm, such as beans,
peas^ &c.t and those, such as clover, trefoil, vetches, &c., which
are supposed to be employed in the production of meat and
manure — and, to the chemical circumstances involved in the con-
sumption of food by animals upon the farm, whether of home or
foreign growth.

With respect to the first two of these branches of the inquiry,
we have already laid before the readers of this Journal many of
the results of our experiments relating to them, and in the course
of their discussion have endeavoured to show their bearings upon
the general principles of agriculture, so far as they seemed to be
indicated by a consideration of the facts adduced ; and also, to
direct attention to the more immediate and direct useful applica-
tion of them to such of the details of practical farming as they
tended to explain and enforce. Both before and since the publi-
cation of our former papers many additional facts relating to the
subjects respectively of which they treat have been accumulated,
which, when leisure is found to complete and arrange them, we
hope to make the subject of future communications. Before
doing so, however, it seems desirable to give some account of the
results obtained in connexion with the other two branches of the
investigation ; and, although neither that relating to the chemical
circumstances of the growth, the uses^ and the adaptations in a
system of alternate cropping^ of the leguminous plants, nor that
having reference to the consumption of food on the farm as a
source of meat and manure^ are at present in that state of for-
wardness which will admit of so full an application of them as we
could wish, yet it is thought that a consideration^ especially of
those relating to the production of meat and manure, will add
something to the information already at command on the subject,
And serve to give an useful direction to the observations and con-
cepdoDB of the intelligent fanner respecting \l.

AffrieulturcU Chemistry — Skeep- Feeding and Manure. 5

We propose then, in the present article, to gfive an account of
some carefullj conducted experiments^ undertaken with the view
of ascertaining, what becomes of food when consumed by animals
upon a farm, and in what form, and in what proportions^ some of
their most important constituents come to be available for the
market — thus taking into account the quantities and qualities of
the manure obtained, as a consideration by no means less essential
in estimating the comparative value of different foods, than that
of the amount of meat produced. Looking at the subject in this
point of view, it has not been our special aim so much to deter-
mine between one food and another as such, or between this or
that mode of preparation, as to select those the general value and
applicability of which are well recognised. Some information on
these points will nevertheless be afforded by our results ; and, as
the question of the comparative feeding values of barley and malt
has of late been much discussed, several comparative trials have
been made with them, and the results of these will be more fully
detailed and considered than would otherwise have been necessary,
on account of the general interest at present excited by the subject.

The experiments upon feeding were commenced early in 1847,
and bullocks and pigs were the animals first selected. It was
soon found, however^ that the former were in several respects ill
suited to our purpose. Owing to their great bulk, and the large
amount of food consumed and of manure produced, it was im-
practicable to keep such a number under exact experiment at the
same time as would ensure anything like an average constituWon
of animal, and it was deemed unsafe and useless to rely upon the
results of a single animal on each description of food. Bullocks,
moreover, are sometimes very unmanageable, and as it was
essential to our object frequently to put the animals in the scales,
this was a material objection ; though by usage indeed, those even
which are at first the most violent and refractory become compa-
ratively quiet and easy of management. Thus — four bullocks were
taken for experiment, of which the first weighing took several
hours, yet they were after a short time weighed daily without any
difficulty whatever, the animals frequently running playfully into
the scales as soon as they were let loose. In consequence how-
ever, it is supposed, of too frequent weighings and other sources
of disturbance incidental to experiment, these animals gave but a
very small increase, and, owing to this circumstance and to the
difficulty of fairly sampling, arising from their great bulk and
weight, no analyses were made of their food and excrements.
The pigfs gav^ a toleraUe increase, but no attention was paid to
their excrements, as they had not been fed upon ordinary food
alone, but upon the dried flesh of the whale which remains after
the extraction of the oil, and which is used \n ^ e'wlowcv^^xA ^^
fael The aoim»l$ increaMed upon it remarkabX^ (aaX tot «b >uanft»

6 Agricultural Chemutry-^Sheep^Feeding and Manure.

but it required a coaaiderable dilution with other food, otherwise
they soon became surfeited, a fact which is not to be wondered at,
considering that the substance contained about 12 per cent, of
nitrogen, a circumstance which we ahall see as we proceed would
be much in favour of its use, so far as the resulting manure is
ccmcemed.

Sheep were next taken, which, from their docility and manage-
able sise, are comrenient subjects for experiment; and, owing to
their very general utility, they seem better fitted than any other
description of farm -stock to be assumed as their type, in an in-
vestigation of the general chemistry of the production of meat and
manure, though at the same time it must be admitted, that it
would in some respects have been desirable to have included
bullocks also in the inquiry. It being essential to our object to
collect, without loss and free from litter or extraneous matter of
any kind, the whole of the excrements of the animals, both liquid
and solid, to be accurately weighed and sampled for analysis, pens
were constructed in a spacious barn, each about 8 feet by 7^ feet,
and having a flooring of rafters, on. the plan proposed by the Rev.
A. Huxtable, the width of the rafters being about 3 inches, and
the distance between them about f inch, so as to allow the whole
of the excrements to pass through. Below this flooring, which
is raised perhaps 2 feet or more above the ground-level, sheet-
zinc is fixed at such an incline as to allow the urine to run off,
while the dung is retained upon it. The urine passes through a
spout into a covered pail kept constantly underneath to receive it,
and to which a straining basket is fixed to stop any solid portions
that may come down, the dung being removed from the zinc at
pleasure for weighing, sampling, &c. The food, of course, was
also accurately weighed. This arrangement appears sufficiently
simple, and well calculated to attain the end desired, but we shall
see as we proceed, that in the details of practice difficulties are
met with from which serious errors in result may easily arise,
unless great care be taken to avoid them. These sources of error
are chiefly connected with the great difficulty of obtaining samples
for analysis which shall accurately represent the bulk of matters so
heterogeneoi^ and variable in their composition as the food and
excrements of animals ; and when it is remembered that in some
processes of analysis a few grains only of substance are operated
upon, and thai from thp composition of these that of the whole is
icalculated, it will readily be understood, that in an investigation
Uke that in question — which itself constitutes indeed from the
beginning to the end one process of qiiantitative analysis — the
[great^t care is requisite^ if erroneous xronclusions are to be
4^v.oided^ And, that the rjeader may be enabled to decide as (o the
Jp^lijni^^y of f Dch ^ ^^ shall fonnd jippn the results, a fpll de-
liprjptiop of the experiments will be pvep^ which moreover may

AfricuMural Chemisijy — She^Feeding and Manure.

farther serve both as guide and monitor to any who may choose to
follow in a field of inquiry at present somewhat new

The sheep emjdoyed in the experiments were Hampshire
Downs, and the setectioni were made from large flocks, usually
nearly 100 being weighed; from these a few animals of nearly
equal weight and apparently equal make were taken, and one put
into each pen — a second lot being then taken and divided in the
same way, and so on — until each pen contained the desired number.
It will nevertheless be seen by the results, that the selections and
distributions were in some cases far from satisfactory, and that»
although five sheep were placed in each pen, the average result of
these can by no means be taken as representing unconditionally
the relative feeding value of the foods employed.

In the account which we shall now proceed to give of several
separate series of experiments, the order adopted will be, to discuss
the whole of the results — first, so far as they relate to the pro-
duction of yroM increase in live toeight — secondly, as to the qualities
aod composition of the increase obtained — and, thirdly, as to
the production of manure. We shall then endeavour to g^ve a
summary of the more important facts elicited, and to show the
connexion between the conclusions to which they may lead, and
those arrived at in our former papers,— -concluding with some re-
marks on their general application to the details of practical
agriculture.

Experiments with Sheep. — Series I.

The first series of sheep-experiments was commenced on Ja-
nuary 5, 1848, and was continued until April 11, a period of
13 weeks and 6 days. There were 4 of the experimental pens,
as described above, employed, into each of which 5 animals were
placed, their weights at the commencement being as under.

SERIFS I.

Tabus 1.— Showing the Weight of Sheep i

January 5, 1848.

in pounds, when

put up,

Namben of Sheep.

Penl.

Pens.

Pen 4.

No. 1 . . .

d . • .

4 . . .

5 . . .

113

111

110
10«

Ite.
117|

nil

110

lbs.
117
114
llOi
110
107

Ibi.
115
114|
112
110^
95

Total wfigbt per Pen

S58

6i8

5581

546}

The sheep were brought from the field, where they had been
receiring swedes and hay chaff; and, with the exception of the 5th

8 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure.

sheep of pens 2 and 4, which appeared however the most eligible
at command at the time> the 4 pens seemed to compare suffi-
ciently with each other^ so far as weight can be taken as a guide.
The results will show, however, that although one of these light
sheep soon proved itself unfit for experiment, the other increased
considerably more than one of the heavier sheep on the same food,
and also more than several of those on the different foods. The
special foods selected were — for pen 1, oil- cake; for pen 2, oats;
pen 3, clover-chaff; and pen 4, oat -straw chaff; besides which, all
were supplied with cut swedes as many as the animals chose to
eat. Taking 1 lb. of oil-cake per sheep per day, as a fair and
ordinary allowance, it would in some respects have been desir-
able to apportion the other dry foods so as to provide an equal
amount of nitrogen in each. The experiments were commenced
however before the analyses of the foods had been undertaken,
so that no allotment founded on their exact nitrogenous contents
could be made, and it was supposed that considerably more than
two pounds both of oats and of clover would be required to equal
1 lb. of oil-cake in this respect. These quantities would ob-
viously be too great ; but it was decided to gain the end approxi-
mately, by giving to pen, 2 as many oats, not exceeding 2 lbs., and
to pen 3 as much clover-chaff, not exceeding 2 lbs. per sheep per
day, as the animals would eat, and to pen 4 oat-straw chaff ad
libitum. It was founds however, that even the oil-cake was not
eaten to the full amount provided ; and, as might be expected,
that the consumption of oats, and clover-chaff, did not nearly
approach that required to equal in supply of nitrogen that of 1 lb.
of oil-cake ; whilst, the oat-straw chaff was taken to such a small
extent, that its use was entirely discontinued after a few weeks.

In the following table are given the average weekly consump-
tion of food per sheep in the several pens, and the pounds weight
of increase of each animal between each period of weighing
(chiefly weekly intervals), throughout the course of the experi-
ments. Wherever the minus sign ( — ) occurs before a figure, loss
instead of gain is indicated.

The statement of the results thus in all their detail is useful^
exhibiting as it does the liability to error in judging of the feed-
ing value of different foods, or of the disposition to increase of
animals of different descriptions, unless both a sufficient number
of animals are experimented upon, and the trial be extended over
a considerable period of time. By a glance down the columns of
the table it is seen, that there is not a sheep which does not during
one or more, sometimes consecutive periods of the experiment,
show a gain of 4, 5, or even 6 or 8 lbs. in a week, whilst at an-
other period it apparently gains nothing at all, or even loses
weighi. It is perhaps scarcely necessary to observe, that these

Agricultural Chemiitry — Sieep- Feeding and Manure.

Table 2. — Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep in
each Pen, the pounds Weekly Gain or Loss of each animal, the weekly
■veiagc for each Pen, aod the total and mean weekly gain of each animal
ihroaghout the period of the experiment.

PbvI.
Atrh* Food pM W«k pa SbHp.

oii«k». It lb.. J BwtAf, m 11-.

Pe«3.

OHi, «t IbL I Switdn, 8N Ihi.

rru.

Sbnp Numtien.

Sh«pNoi>)H>.

*■

»■

KliT

Jo. s

Xu. )

Feh.1

I;!

1*
" f

'!:

s-s

...

" ?

]

TwU.

»7

M A

«»

l»o

14 0

jsa

Hwu.

'.*%r

T-iX

Ibl-U.

o^*i

,.|,„

it^™.

'J""

r.r

r,5

lt..«

Pbn3.

Pniodi.

A™iig«Fo«lp.rW«lL

ATcnws Food p«

W<^<-k

Clowr Chxr, 81 Itn. ; Hw^ei, 1 le Ibi.

Ou-tnw Chijr, ) 1

j S-alcj, lIOtlbL

81»p.\ualHr..

r^y

S^tNub.

bm.

w-.„

D.,..

*■

■!■

ih4.

Ja 1

'*■ i

_ J

-"t

O'l

. J

_ ^

-J!

- (

-t-i

-0-1

'•

J:i=

TooU.

.7 «

17)

;i|

H 1 191

^ ""^

1 n*

*"*

I li

It a,

l!_

"•V"

_L1

-LI

nil (W Bpon tiKUi tSod 1

, Hud being tTWoBtly Tery niiwr^.

10 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep- JFeeding and Manure,

variations mainly depended on the amount of the matters of the
food retained at the time in the stomach and intestines of the ani-
mals, an irregularity which was guarded against as far as seemed
practicable without imposing unnatural restraints upon the animal,
the plan adopted being, to weigh them always about the same hour
of the day, and j ust before their second meal of dry food, their
troughs being, however, constantly supplied with turnips. This
variation is indeed a source of error which it is very difficult to
control, and it is probable that many of the published results of
very rapid increase are subject to objection on account of it. The
fluctuation, as would be supposed, seems to occur nearly as promi-
nently with those sheep which in the main show a good result as
with the rest ; and, although there is nevertheless considerable
difference, yet there is, excluding the extreme cases of loss or
gain of individual sheep, to an extent an uniformity throughout
each pen at the several periods, and even between pen and pen,
as a view of the columns of weekly average gain or loss in each,
placed side by side, will show.

SERIES I.

Table 8.— Showing the Weekly Average Cxain or Lioss per Sheep in

each Pen throughout the course of the experiments.

PERIODS

Wedkly Avenge 0«ln or Lom per Bbeep

in poanda and tenUw.

From

Penl.

Pen 2.

Pen 3.

Pen 4.

Jan. 5

Jan. 18

3-7

4-7

4-2

2-7

2*4

0-9

2-7

0*4

Feb. 1

1-8

1-2

8-5

1-5

Feb. 1

2-5

1-5

3-4

1-3

2-4

-2-2

0-2

2-3

3-5

5-2

-0-2

0*0

0-2

-2-6

Mar. 7

0-6

4-2

4.4

4.7

Mar. 7

-0-3

3-5

1-4

0 7

5-5

3-4

4-5

-10

-1-8

-0-2

-1-5

April 4

1-8

-0-8

2-2

0-2

April 4

2-4

1-9

0-6

0-7

1-8

1-9

2-1

1-5

Thus it is seen that during the Ist, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th
periods, there is throuffhout the pens a general disposition to more
than the average increase, especially at periods 1, 8, and 10,
excepting in pen 1, but on reference to the details it will be
found that the small average of pen 1 at the two latter periods^ de-
pended upon a consiflerable loss of one single animal which was
so unwell as to require removal and change of food for a time.
Again, at periods 5, 7, 9, and 11, there is throughout the pens a
^/h much below the average, or even a loss, the cases rather ex-

jIgnrieutoutU CkamiMtty-^SieqhFeeduy tmd Mamm.

oeptiooal beifi|^ pen 2 at periods 5 and 9 ; on the other hand the
amfonnitj is most striking at periods 7 and 11 ; at the former, pen
3 is the only gainer, to the small extent of 0*2 Ib.^ pen 1 losing
that amount, and pen 4 considerably more ; whilst at period 1 1
there is a loss of weight in every pen. Considering the uni-
formity as to time and circumstanoes of weighing, it is scarcely
likely that these results are attributable to an irregular allotment
nf food on the days of weighing, but is more likely to be de-
pendent on the state of the weather as to temperature and other
circamstances, so influencing the appetite, the action of the
lungs, the liver and the circulation, as materially to affect the
temporary amount of the contents of the alimentary cavities and
passages. A reference, however, to the exact amount of food
oonsomed, and to the maximum, minimum, and mean tempe-
nuures during the several periods — whilst it is not without interest
as bearing upon these points— does not so satisfactorily account for
the facta observed, as to justify a full consideration of them in this
place. The remarks already made, however, will serve some
useful purpose, if they direct the attention of other experimenters
to sources of errors which have not unfrequently been overlooked,
aod which, if not avoided, are in danger of leading the farmer
ladly to miscalculate in reference to a very important branch of
his operations.

The following summary will bring to view the average weekly
increase of each animal upon the same and the different foods,
for the (sntire period of 13 weeks and 6 days : —

Tablk 4.-
period

SERIES I.

-Showing the Average Weekly Increase of each Sheep for the entire
of the Experiment. Quantities stated in Pounds and Ounces.

llw.
Ill*

nil

Food eoosumed per Week per Sheep.

OUeake, H lb*.; Swede*. 89| Ifae. . .
Oita, 8i Ibi. ; Swedet, 8Si lbs.
Qorer Chaff, Sllbe.; Sweden 1 16 Ibe. .
Swede*, liOi IW. ; Oet^Stnw Chaff, i lb.

Averai^e Weekly Inereaae of each
Sheep in poandi and oancea.

Sheep.

No. 1.

lbe.ox.
S 9(

2 %k

1 \%\

1 8

Sheep,
No. 2.

lbe.os.
8 7J

2 9
* H

1 lOf

Sheep,
No.d.

Iha. ox.
• H

% i\

I 15i
0 U|

Sheep,
No. 4.

lbs. OS.
0 141

0 \%i

Sheep,
No. 5.

Ibi. oa.
1 0

1 141

2 3| : 8 0
I H

Men

Wmklj

InereMt

la Mch

Pen.

Ibi. OS.

1 14

2 0|
2 S|
1 ftf

Such is the variation between one sheep and another as shown
in the Table, that taking: the results of each pen collectively, little
exact information can be obtained from them respecting the re-
Utive value of the different foods as meat- producers. In pen 1
with oil-cake, there are 2 sheep g^iving an amount of increase con-
tiderablv less than half that of the other 3 on the same fv^od.
In pen 2 with oBis, there is one animal scarcely eiLceedcivv^ Y-'^i^

12 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep^ Feeding and Manure.

the mean increase of the other 4. In pen 3 the clover- chaff does
not give a single bad result, and owing to a comparativelj large
gross increase in one case (which, as we shall afterwards see, was
an over estimate of the real progress), gives the highest mean of
all the pens. As has been observed already, the oat-straw chaff
was almost entirely refused by the sheep of pen 4, and it was
therefore discontinued after 4 weeks* trial. One of the animals,
moreover. No. 5, lost from the commencement, and it was re-
moved unwell from the experimental pen after the 4th week, but
recovered on better diet. The 4 remaining, give, as might be
expected, an increase very inferior to the mean of the other pens,
and the result can scarcely be fairly compared with them.

Setting aside pen 4, the mean increase of the first 3 pens, taken
together, is believed to be a fair practical result ; and it is probable
that such variations upon the same food as have been noticed are
by no means uncommon, and although they arise chiefly from
variations in constitution, and cannot therefore be attributed to
the food consumed, yet it is probable that they will be more
likely to exhibit themselves under a high than under an inferior
diet, provided this be not deficient.

In endeavouring to estimate the comparative feeding value of
the several descriptions of food with such a small number of
animals on each, and with such variations among them, perhaps
the truest indication will be obtained, by excluding those sheep
which appear to have been unhealthy, or at least ill adapted to
food, the general value of which is fully recognised. Leaving out
of view then the 2 sheep of pen 1 before mentioned, one of which
was at one period so unwell as to require removal for a time, and
the single sheep in pen 2 whose increase was so far below the
average, we shall find that the oil-cake had given the best in-
crease, the oats coming 2nd, and the clover- chaff 3rd. It is,
however, chiefly as showing the probable average increase ob-
tainable from a given amount of foods of known value and com-
mon utility, rather than as pointing out any nice distinctions
between them, that the results are useful.

In the next Table are given the results of analyses of the
various foods, by which we shall be enabled to estimate the
amounts of some of the more important constituents consumed.

The large quantities of the foods operated upon will surprise
those accustomed to ordinary laboratory processes. It has been
found, however, that the composition of most agpricultural sub-
stances is so heterogeneous, as to require that special attention be
paid to the averaging and preparation of the specimens; and, that
it is necessary to take from the bulk with great care somewhat
large quantities in the first instance, more especially of roots and
other SDCculent or moist substances. These, if necessary, are
partially 'dried, to render them capable ol bevxi^ f«ift\^ ^vided

Agrieuttardl ChemUtry — SheejhFeeding and Manure. 13

SEBIES I.

Table 5. — Showing the per Centages of Dry Matter ^ Ashy and Niirogen^

in the Foods.

Daaaiption of Food, paxticalan of Sampling, &c

Pte Centage reaulta.

Pteiodof
Ommimptioa.

Futicalan

and

Bate of

Sampling.

Fredi
Weight

taken

for

Diying,

Dry Matter.

Aah.

Nitrogea.

Dcacnadon

Inela>
five

Aah.

Oi-

ganie
only.

fredi

tub-

•tance.

In
dry
mat-
ter.

mb-
■Unee.

In
dry

Food.

Fran

ter.

ftMllCi,No. 1.

S««d«,Mo.S.

Aaokaa OO-
ttka

OMi • . .
OenrChair .

Jan. ft
Feb. 4

Jan. ft

Jan. ft
Jan. ft

Jan. ft

Fet. 4
Apr. 11

Apr. 11

Apr. 11
Apr. 11

• •

¥tom. the Held,
Dec. 1847

Clamped, Nor.

1847;
Sampled, Feb.

9,1848

At commence"
ment

At eoncluaion.

From laige
quantity cot
at eommenee-
ment

• •

lba.oi.
43 H

14 8i

OS.
ftO

tft

100

Sft

10*58

IflS

89*50

8ft*18
78-61

81*88

10*009
11*49

84*08

88*84

79*38

84*86

0-677
0'6SS

ft '480

2-940
6*880

6*418

ft '458
ft*814

6*060

8*450
7*990

7*870

0*863
0*151

ft*08S

8-078
1«847

• •

8*49

l-8ft

ft*68

8*44
S*Sft

• •

and well mixed, and smaller proportional amounts are then taken
if required for fully drying and burning ; a portion being reserved
for organic analysis. It will be seen, however, that notwithstand-
ing these precautionSi we have in some cases fallen short of the
desired result. The dryings and burnings are accomplished by
means of apparatus arranged specially for the conduct of these
processes on the scale required in agricultural investigation. The
drying-bath consists of a double-cased iron box with water
between, heated by a furnace underneath, the internal dimensions
beii^ about 5 feet 6 inches length, by 2 feet 6 inches width, and
18 inches height. The burnings are conducted on sheets of pla-
tinum placed in a series of cast-iron mu£Bes about 16 inches in
length, about 5 in width, and 3 to 4 in height, which are so fitted
into a cast-iron furnace, heated by coke, as to prevent any dust
whatever from the fire getting into them, a gentle yet sufficient
draft over the surface of the burning substance being secured by
means of a chimney of iron piping, fixed into the back of each of
the muflSes, and projecting some height externally to the furnace.
Referring to the results of the Table, it is worthy of remark,
that the swedes No. 1, which were consumed from January 5
to February 4, had a per centage of nitrogen nearly double that
of swedes No. 2, which were commenced at the latter date, and
lasted to the end of the experiment. The former vreie ^axX ol vci

14 Agricnitural Chemistry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure.

experimental crop grown by rape-cake, ammoniacal salt, and
superphosphate of lime ; the latter were grown in the ordinary
course of farming from farm-yard dung and superphosphate of
lime. We have shown in a former paper in this Journal, the
effect of nitrogenous manures in increasmg the per centage of
nitrogen in the white turnip, and the results given above, support
the supposition that the composition of the swede turnip is in-
fiuencefl in the same way. It is probable, however, that a part of
the result may be due to a difference in the stage of maturity, and
to the circumstances of storing in the two cases. Weight for
weight the oil-cake is seen to contain more than twice as much
nitrogen as either the oats or the clover ; the latter is the poorer
of the two in that respect, and also so far as dry organic matter is
coocerned, and this latter moreover in the clover would probably
consist to a much greater extent of inert woody fibre, which would
pass through the animal unchanged, than in the oats. The clover,
however, contains a much larger per centage of mineral matter.

Below are arranged side by side the total amount of fresh
food— of dry organic matter<— of mineral matter — and of nitrogen
(the three latter calculated from the data provided in the last
Table), consumed in each pen during the entire period of 14
weeks; also the total increase of live weight obtained at their
expense, from 5 sheep in the first 3 pens, and from 4 in the 4th
pen.

SERIES I.

Table 6. — Showing the Amount of Food or Constituents consumed, ani

Increase produced.

Total
Increase
in Live
Weight.

Quantities of Food eon-

■aaaed in ceeh P»a

in 14 Weeks.

Total

Dry

Organic

Matter

con-
sumed.

Total

Bfinera]

Maltee

con-
siia>e<i.

Total
Nitrogen

eon-
anmed.

Nitiogeaa

in In-

ereaaeaft

a per cent.

Nitn

in]

100 <

soao

IVnl.

ftSllMpw

Iba.
Uli

OUeake, 4ft6i Iba. . . .
Swedes. 6286 Iba. . . ,

Total . .

lbs.
891i

lbs.
Ml

S8|>

Iba.

lit

lbs.

Ih
11

1,07ft

•M

8ft

P»n2.

5 8lM6p.

143

Oats. ftW Iba. . . . .
Swedes, ft7ft6 Iba. « . .

Total . .

4811
683

171
4ll

12*

101

1—

}••■

l.l84f

&8« »H

FbnS.
ft Sheep.

157

Qover Chaff, ft78 Itaa. . .
Swedes, 81SU Iba. . .

Total . .

418
899

ftO

10*
141

' 4*7

18<

1,817

8ei

«H

F%n4.
4SlM«p.

Oat-Stiaw Chaff, fH lbs. .
Swedea, 8748 Iba. . . .

Total . .

84«

747

41*

18*

> 8*8

18'

7711

43*

19 8kMpi

•07^

For tha 4 Pens . .

4,t88i

fftU

•8

lft*8

]ft<

Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feedinff'afid Manure. 15

The actual amount of nitrogen contained in the gfoss in-
crease in live weight of an animal fed upon food containing a
giren amount of that suhstanee^ cannot of course he experiment-
al Ij ascertained; it is believed, however, that the estimate of
3 per ceot«, by which the last 2 columns of the Table are ar-
rang€d» is not wide of the truths though it is more probably too
high than too low, as we shall have occasion to show further on.
Assuming the figures as given in the Table to be correct^ it is
seee, that by the feeding of 19 sheep for 14 weeks, during which
time they eonsnmed 1662 lbs. of dry food, and 26,905 lbs. of
swedes, containing together 96 lbs. of nitrogen, only 15^ lbs. of
that element are obtained in the increase of weight produced.
We learn too from the Table« that although the actual amount of
nitrogen consumed in pen 4 was only one half that in pens 2 and
3^ yet the amount of nitrogen retained by the animal to 100 oon<
sumed is almost identical in the three cases, thus indicating a close
connexion between the amount of nitrogen in the food, and that
of increase produced. It is possible that the actual per centages
given may not be correct, yet the relation of the amounts to each
othw is probably a pretty close representation of the truth. It
would appear, however, that the sheep upon oil-cake, although
they consumed a larger amount of nitrogen in their food than those
in either of the other pens, yet they gave an increase not only less
in actual amount^ but £ar less in proportion to the nitrogen con-
sumed, than those in either of the other pens. This result is
partly due to taking into the calculation the 2 sheep which in-
creased 80 very much less than the rest ; yet other experiments
seem to show, that however important to the progress of the ani-
mals a large amount of nitrogen in their food may be, their in-
crease will by no means be unconditionally in direct numerical
proportion to the amount of the nitrogen consumed, especially
whan this is increased beyond a certain limit.

With the exception of the last two columns, of which chiefly
we have been speaking, the %UTes in the preceding Table repre-
sent the actual experimental results obtained. For more conve-
nient reference, however, and for the study of the general bearing
of the facts as to the probable amount of food or constituents re-
quired to produce a given effect, they are arranged in Tables 7
and 8, which follow, so as to show the weekly consumption in
each pen by every 100 lbs. of live-weight of animal, and also the
amount consumed to produce 100 lbs. of increase. Before leaving
Table 6, however, we may remark, that of the mineral matter con-
sumed, there were in the 1st pen 60*8 per cent., in the 2nd 70*2
per cent., in the 3rd 57 * 9 per cent., and in the 4th 95 * 9 per cent,
derived flrom the home-produced root-crop, the remainder being
due to the dry, purchased or marketable food.

16 AffricuUural Chemittry—^Sheep- Feeding and Manure.

•si

■ii

I''

-■II

7??T

5S2^

.jj

m--

????

1
1

iili

8^11

'Ji-

3:s^

1
1

CESS

S52g
SSSS

asss

i-i

^■'i

ljjl

III!

•s

.11

ssas

■s

! "«

S2I5S

„-

g e

SgJ2

«i-»o

' .p

I!!:

■?

a«-

1 "It

2SS5

<g-°

SSSS

s"|

i ^

sssa

i 'II

ts-s

r-:i

-II

S2S3

•s ►

1 -^

S3?S

lS.S

■ ■ *

I 'Jl

^i^

ilil

5SSE

i
"J

i i

^ p

ssis

-4*1

f-i

III!

iilS.

Agrieuitwrdl Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 17

In explanation of the construction of Table 7, it should be ob-
seired, that the live weight, which is supposed to have consumed
the total food in each pen, as given in Table 6, is the mean of the
weight throughout the entire period of the experiment, obtained
bj adding together the total weight in each pen at the commence*
ment and at the end of the experiment, and dividing by 2* It
may be well also here to mention, as affecting the correctness of
Tables 7 and 8 — and, indeed, Table 6 also, though the subject
will be again referred to — that the samples of swedes No. 1 were
taken direct from the field on the day they were carted from the
land, a short time previous to the commencement of their use, and
those of swedes No. 2, also near to the commencement of their
consumption ; so that, if, as we have shown in a previous paper, a
considerable exhalation of water takes place from roots and other
succulent substances after they are gathered in, it is evident that
the quantities weighed out to the animals, after being cut day by
day as the experiment proceeded, would represent a larger amount
of the fresh swedes such as came to the feeding-shed than was
indicated by the scales. Indeed, it is to be feared that the amounts
of dry matter and of nitrogen in the swedes, are from this cause
estimated too low in the Tables given above ; and, judging by the
aid of other results since obtamed, it is supposed that they ought
to be raised by about one-sixth of the total amount of those sub-
stances stated as contained in the swedes. Supposing the error to
exist, it would not materially affect the correctness of any observa-
tions we shall hazard respecting the results, though its prolbability
wUl certainly add to reasons already suggested for the exercise of
caution in founding any nice calculations upon them. It is thought
better thus to give the results as they were actually obtained, with
such observations as may indicate in what respects they may be
subject to error, than arbitrarily to amend them, upon data which
are uncertain.

With these precautionary remarks we may safely call attention
to the fact, that whether we take the figures as given in the Tables,
or consider them amended, it would seem that there was very
nearly the same amount of gross dry-organic-matter consumed
weekly by 100 lbs. of live weight of animal in all the pens; and
when we consider that in the 3rd pen with clover, which gives the
highest amount, there would be a larger proportion of it inert
woody fibre, which would pass through the animals unchanged,
than in any of the other pens, and that in the 4th pen, which
gives the least dry-organic-matter consumed, the swedes only
would probably contain less effete matter than the mixed foods in

• This rule is applied in all the cases of a similar kind occurring in this
article.

18 AgrxcuUurai ChemiMry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure* .

the other cases, it would appear that the amounts of really difrest-
ible dry organic food were almost identical in the four cases. The
amount of nitrogen, on the other hand^ which is consumed by a
given weight of animal within a given time, varies exceedingly in
the four pens: there being to 100 lbs. live weight per week,
0*39 lb. in pen 1, 0 25 lb. in pen 2, 0 26 lb. in pen 3, and 017 lb.
only in pen 4. If we now turn to Table 8, however, we shall see
that the amount of nitrogen required to produce a given increase
of weight was almost identical in pens 2, 3, and 4, with oats and
swedes, clover and swedes, and swedes only, respectively : whereas
in pen 1, with oil- cake, in which by far the largest amount of
nitrogen was consumed within a given time, a less effect was pro-
duced by a given amount of it. It would thus appear that ccU"
sumption is regulated much more by the amount of available fum-
nitrogenous substance in the food than by that of nitrogen ; whilst
the %7icrea$e would seem to bear a much more direct relation to the
quantity of nitrogen consumed, when this does not exceed a certain
limit — beyond which, however, the proportional effect would ap-
pear to be lessened. From Table 8, again, we gather that although,
in pen 4 with swedes alone, a given amount of nitrogen produced
an effect equal to that of any of the other foods, yet this would
seem to have been attained at the cost of a larger consumption of
available non-nitrogenous food ; for not only is the gross amount
of dry-organic-matter consumed to pro<luoe lOO lbs. increase
greater ,in pen 4 than in any of the others, but it is supposed that
less of it would be necessarily at once effete than in any of the
other cases. From these facts we learn, that, so far at least as the
production of increase is concerned, the nitrogenous constituents
were, in pen 1 with oil -cake, in excess over the available non-
nitrogenouii ones; whilst in pen 4, on the other hand, where
swedes alone were g^ven, they were in defect.

Turning to the general rather than to the particular facts
brought to view, we find — taking the average results of 15 sheep
fed for 14 weeks on oil-cake, or oats, or clover-chaff, and swedes,
as shown in the bottom line of Table 7 — that every 100 lbs. live
weight of animal consumed weekly 6^ lbs. of the special foods,
and 76^ of swedes, which contained together ISj^lbs. of dry-
organic-matter, \ lb. of mineral matter, and 0*3 lb. (about 5 oz.)
of nitrogen ; and from Table 8 we learn that 377 lbs. of the spe«
cial foods and 4658 lbs. of swedes — the two containing 814 lbs. of
dry-organic-matter, 46^ lbs. of miperal matter, and 19^ lbs. of
nitrc^n— were required to produce 100 lbs. increase in live
weight. The results of pen 4 are excluded from this estimate,
as the food consumed in it, being almost wholly swedes, can
scarcely be compared with those of the other pens, nor was it,
like them^ such as is usually considered sufficient for animals
preparing for the butcher.

AffrieuUural Chemutry — Sheep^Feeding and Manure, 19

We have now given an account of the first series of experiments
with sheep, so far as thej relate to the production of increase in
pvss live weight of animal^ to which point we for the present
confine our attention. In so doing it has been our endeavour to
arrange them in such form as would be convenient for their study,
and to make such remarks respecting them, as may serve usefully
to direct the attention of the reader to the chief points of interest
in the results ; at the same time pointing out several sources of
irregularity, which seem to demand that great caution should be
exercised both in the conduct and the interpretation of such ex-
periments.

We shall now proceed to consider the results of a second series,
in relation, first, also to that branch of the subject to which alone
we have as yet referred — viz. that of the production of gross live
weight; leaving the question of the probable qualities or composi-
tion of the increase obtained, for consideration further on, in refe«
reoce to all the series collectively.

Experiments with Sheep. — Series II.

This series, like the former one, comprised 4 pens of 5 sheep
each. On June 5, 1848, 80 yearling wethers (part of a flock of
200) were weighed, from which the selection was made. In
matching the animals in sets of 4, for the distribution of one of
them into each pen, attention was paid rather more to the breed
and make than to actual identity in weight, any discrepancy in re-
spect to the latter in one distribution, being compensated for, as far
as possible, ip the next ; so that eventually a sufficiently equal
weight was obtained in each pen, as the following Table will show :

SERIES II.

Tablb 1. — Showing the weight of sheep in pounds when put up,

June 5, 1848.

Sheep Numben.

Penl.

Pen 2.

Pen 3.

Pen 4.

Ibi.

llM.

lb«.

llM.

No. 1 . . .

120

125

122

117

2 . . .

124

123

117

122

8 . . .

125

117

120

4 . • .

121

123

118

119

6 . . .

117

119

125

124

Total weight ptr Pen

007

607

602

The sheep having corresponding numbers in the several pens
do not agree here so well as in the former series. The result will
show, however, that the selection was probably somewhat an im-
provement upon the last ; at least, with one or two exceptions, the
variations upon the same food are much less, and do not so seriously
interfere with the legitimacy of the comparisons between ^en and
pen, unlcMs, indeed, moderate uniformity be ina\x&cv«T\V \o ^%

20 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep^Feeding and Manure*

confidence in results obtained from so small a number of animals
in each case. It should be mentioned, however, that No. 5 sheep,
in pen 1, fell ill and died in the fifth week of the experiment, when
his place was supplied by another from the same flock, having a
weight the same as the one which was taken away before it had
lost by the attack of illness.

Whilst, as we have before stated, the primary object of the ex-
periments was not alone to decide the comparative value of diffe-
rent yet allied descriptions of food, as such, the selection of foods
was nevertheless made in the hope that some interesting facts
bearing upon such points might be ascertained ; and those taken
were — for pen J , oil-cake ; pen 2, linseed ; pen 3, barley ; and
pen 4, malt. It would have been desirable to have given green
clover^ or tares, or some other summer green crop, as the comple-
mentary food, such constituting the usual practice at the period
of the year at which the experiments were made. But as such
substances are even more variable and changeable in their compo-
sition than rootSy particularly as to the amount of dry matter they
contain, it was decided that it would be quite impracticable so to
supply such food as to obtain a trustworthy estimate of the actual
amount of dry solid matter consumed, and as the accurate deter-
mination of this point was essential to our object, there was no
alternative but to supply dry hay, the composition of which would
vary little, compared with that of any other substance at command.
Clover-chaff was therefore taken, free allowance of water being of
course necessary. It may be objected that the supply of dry food
only, with water, was not in all respects favourable to the progress
of the animals ; it is, indeed, more than probable that a larger
increase would have been obtained upon other food ; but the re-
sults by no means lead to the conclusion that they are far short of
such as are frequently met with in practice, or that the value of
the comparative indications is thereby lessened.

In the absence of previous knowledge by analysis of the compo-
sition of the food, it was considered desirable to give to each sheep
1 lb. per day of the special foods, as this was about the quantity
that would be given of them in ordinary practice. It was found,
however, that the sheep receiving malt would not eat it well at
first, though afterwards they did so. The clover-chaff was allowed
to all^ in any quantities the animals chose to eat it ; the amount, of
course, being always accurately weighed, as also was that of the
water taken. The oil-cake was broken small under an edge-stone.
The linseed (excepting during the first few weeks, when some was
found to be voided whole), the barley, and the malt, were also
ground.

Below are given the average weekly consumption of food per
sheep per week, and the periodical gain or loss of each animal
ihrougboat the oouTMe of the experimenlt : —

Affrieultural Chemittry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 21

Table 2. — Showing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep in
(acb Pen, the pounds Weekly Gain or Loss of each animal, the weekly average
of each Fen, and the total gain of each animal throughout the period of the
operiments.

rataiM.

PbnI.

Av™g. Food p« SliHp p« W«k.

Dil-ak>, t i)M. ; Clani Chmir, >■ ll>. t «

LIM

P<n3.
Tigs Food pn Sbwp pn Weik.
^.jlh..iCln..Ch.ff, MIU.

N-

81«pNa«bm.

■^

-»"-

■b-p.

a. 4.

W, t

Ai(. 1

-f'

- n

jij

- *

-1

»-*

0-7
1*0

t™.[«

•'

lot

" «

1 P.N3.
IVrtod.. AT.™g.FMdi«rShMppeiW«k.

Illulej, 1 Ih.. 1 Cluvei Chair. ](Olh..UM

Pen!.

A«™b. FMd i*r Sh«p I*. Week.

Milt,a[tL«oi.lC1<>TorClimff,)Ull>.lli>i.

Sh«p«..,™ 1=^

Ml«P NDmbni.

a. , .. 1 ..

S6.V

*■

Oct. I

-j

■! i

« - i

1-1

- *

-F

o-«

T<«1

" : " 1 » 1

" 1 ■*

When the sbeep were put up it was intended to allow them a
week in tbeir new situaiion and upon their new {ooA\)«lOTei cnm-
laeaciag the experiments, they having been fed Vkfton gtecci c\vr4KC

22 Agricultural Chemidry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure.

in the field ; but as almost everj animal lost^ and some very con-
siderably^ during the first 8 days, and then gained within a week
or two very large amounts, it was thought that the average results
would be overstated if the first week were not taken into ac-
count. This is accordingly done ; and as the clover-chaff was not
weighed during the first eight days, it is supposed to have been
taken at the same rate as the mean of all the other periods. With
this exception, and the replacement of No. 5 sheep in Pen 1 by
a fresh one, as already noticed, the results of the Table are
exactly as obtained by experiment. On inspection of the Table
it will be seen that there is not a single animal which does not
indicate a loss of weight at some, generally several periods of
the experiment ; whilst at others there is frequently during one
week, or for several weeks together, an increase far above the
average. Indeed such is the apparent generality of this fluctua-
tion, which was so prominent also in the case of the first series,
that the plan frequently adopted of deciding upon the quality of
different foods by putting animals for a week or two on one^ and
then a week or two on another, and comparing the results, would
seem on this account alone to be sufficiently condemned.

The average weekly gain or loss placed side by side will show
how far there is any uniformity as to fluctuation throughout the
several pens at the different periods of weighing.

SERIES II.
Table 3. — Showing the Weekly Average Gain or Loss per Sheep in
each Pen throughout the course of the experiment.

PERIODS.

Weekly ATenge Gain or Loh per Sheep in poands

and tenths.

PWll.

Pen*.

Pen 3.

Peu4.

Rrom

Ofl-«ake

Lineeed and

Barley and

Malt and

and Clover.

Clover.

Jane 5

Juoel3

-2-1

-2-5

-0-2

-0-5

7-2

7 2

6*4

5-5

4-4

2*1

2*0

Julr 4

2*2

0-3

0*3

July 4

0*2

-0-4

1-8

2-6

3-1

2'7

2-9

0-4

-10

0-4

0 5

O'l

Aug. 1

0*3

3*3

-0-4

1-7

Aug. 1

4*3

3-0

4-1

0-1

0-7

1-1

1-9

0-7

2-8

3-2

0-7

2-0

-1-1

-1-5

Sept 5

4-1

4-2

4*8

Sept 5

-0-2

0-6

-2-2

0 6

5-2

1-6

3-8

2-5

-1-6

0«2

0-3

-01

Oct 3

4*3

3-7

1-2

Oct. 8 10

-0-9

2-1

-^0-2

-0*4

10 17

1-0

-2-0

-0 8

-.1-4

AffrieuUttnU Clumithy — Sheep- Feedinff aitd Manure. 23

It can sckrcdy be lud that there is more than a general coin*
ddeooe as to tendency to greater or less gain or loss at the dif-
ferent periods, as shown in this summary. Some coinddence,
howerer, there certainly is, for we find that at almost every period
three if not four pens mil bear the same general character as to
fain or loss at Uie same time ; and that, if any figure which is
discrepant, be not explained on reference to the table of detail, by
the evidently casu^ or unhealthy state of a single animal, a
change to the opposite character immediately succeeds. There
is at any rate a sufficiency of regularity to show that its cause is
OHmected with a condition of the animal, apart from the casual
irregolarities in their management and the supply of their food,
which a closer obserratioti in relation to the hwth of the animal,
■nd to the external circumstances affecting it, may serve to ex-
plain. Whatever be the cause of the' fluctuation, however, the
bet of it should be kept constantly in view by the experimenter,
ID order that erroneous conclusions founded upon temporary or
accidental indications may be avoided.

Id ibe following table arc shown the averr^^e weekly consump-
tion of food, and increase of each animal, throughout the entire
period of nineteen weeks ; —

Tabls 4.— ^bowing the Average Weekly Consumption of Food per Sheep,
aad the Av«age Weekly Increase of each Animal in pound* and ounces.

Dscripdan ud

..„,.„„„,

.».

iSS'Ew'^T)

1 "

• H

1 n

1 »1

1 lit

■

Itll

K-ci..-.::!

1 N

» i

1 7t

I u

1 ■

1 11*

■

u.,

{S-.W.:,:}

1 1»

0 14*

1 B|

1 N(

...

1 «

'"*

jgs„ci^-,;,!i

I »*

1 it

1 u

. «

1 .1

By this summary it is seen that the average weight of the ani-
mals in the first and second pens, having respectively oil-cake
and linseed, were identical at the commencement of the experi-
ment ; that of those in Pens 3 and 4, upon barley and malt, is
I lb. less than that of the first two pens, but is identical in the
two pens, the foods of which are supposed to compare with each
other. The amoanls of oilcake in Fen 1 , and of linseed in Pen 2,
are seen also to be identical. In the case of the pens upon barley
aod malt respectively, owing, as before stated, to the kVcc^otv >>ti«

24 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure.

latter not taking all that was provided for tbem at the com-
mencement of the experiment, the average weekly consumption
of malt is rather less than it was intended it should be, and by so
much less than that of barley. We shall see further on, how-
ever, that this circumstance brings the experiments in some re-
spects more nearly to the conditions required for exact comparison
of the relative feeding values of the two substances than had the
designed amount been eaten ; for, though the actual weight of
malt was less than that of barley, the amounts of dry-organic^
matter consumed in the two cases are almost identical, and the
quantity of malt actually taken moreover exceeded to a small ex-
tent that which would have been yielded by the amount of barley,
wilh which its effects have to be compared.

It will be remembered, that in the first series of experiments
there was so serious a variation in the degree of progress of the
different animals on the same food, that the results were consi-
dered to be quite unfit to be taken as representing as they stood
the comparative values of the several foods. This variation was
specially remarkable in the pen upon oil-cake, and considerably
with that upon oats, and it was attributed to a faulty matching of
the animals ; and it was suggested also that any defective vigour
of constitution might probably be more likely prominently to
show itself in disease upon the higher foods, such as oil-cake,
than upon others. Be this as it may, Table 4, just given, shows
a great improvement in this respect, and especially in Pen 1, in
which again oil-cake is the special food, the uniformity is quite as
good as could be at all anticipated. In Pen 2, with linseed, there
is much less regularity than in Pen 1, there being one sheep
giving an increase low compared with the rest, and another giving
one as much higher; the two giving a mean so near to that of the
other three, however, that the average of the entire pen may pro-
bably be taken as not far from a fair measure of the effect of this
food as compared with the others. Although the general uni-
formity within each pen in this entire series is such as to give
some confidence in the results compared one with another, yet
the average weekly increase is throughout considerably less than
in the case of the former series, notwithstanding that the animals
were somewhat heavier to begin with, that the temperature of the
period was considerably higher, and the amounts consumed of
some of the more inqportant constituents of food were greater.
This may be supposed to be due to the fact of confinement
within doors being less appropriate during the summer period^
and perhaps indeed not attended with benefit as in the colder
one, in part to the want of green food, which is so much relished
during the summer season, and also in part to a rather long con-
tinuance of the same food, for in the last column of the Table in

Agrieukural Chemidry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure^ 25

which is given the averapfe weekly gain at an earlier period of the
experiment, we see that it exceeds that calculated on the entire
period. That the confinement and want of green food were not
without effect is rendered probable from the fact that the re-
mainder of the flock from which the experimental sheep were
taken, and which were allowed the run of 40 acres of very highly
manured clover, and about 1 lb. each per day of oil-cake besides,
ITsve during eleven weeks about double the average weekly in-
crease of those in the experimental pens, as the particulars given
below oii those whose marks remained legible will show.

Table. — Showing the Mean Weekly Increase of 30 Sheep, fed upon
Green Clover, and 1 lb. each per day of Oil-cake, during a period
of II Weeks.

Weight
June 5.

3,317^

Weight

inlbe.

Aagiut21.

161
133
147
148
134
143
131
161
155
142
145
157
145
158
145
162
154
149
145
U2
138
146
145
146
144
131
158
140
143
152

4,300

Pounds
increase in
11 weeks.

43i

U072

ATenge
Weekly
Increase.

Ib«. lentlw, fte.

2«

3«

09
73
18
64
00
36
82
45
64
00
91
82
09
73
91
00
45
64
82
82
18
27
45
73
91
09
91
54
09
il

3*28mean

T\i t^ of increase here indicated falls little short of the

-»:i * ^^ •.^^ tiauallv formed on this subject; and, whilst we
^uer estimates u»m» j r^L/: -u ii

• &ed of the correctness of the figures given above^ wivV to

26 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure.

not doubt the statements of others^ yet we are conTiooed that
such results are very mischievously misapplied, if it be concluded
that they in any degree fairly represent Uie average increase ob-
tained in practical farming. Indeed the circumstances under
which these sheep were placed were in every respect the 'most
favourable that could be imagined, viz. summer weather and
the feed of a luxuriant crop of highly manured clover, with oil-
cake besides— -conditions which at best can be equalled during a
few months only of every twelve.

We now turn to a consideration of the composition of the food
consumed in the experimental pens : —

SERIES II.

Table 5. — Showing the per Centages of Dry Matter, Mineral Matter, and

Nitrogen in the Foods.

Per Oentagea.

Period or
Cousoaiption.

Date

i>r

Saapliag.

Weight

Ulcen

for

Drying*

&c.

Dry Matter.

Aah.

Nitrogen.

Deieription

Inclu-
■iTe

Aah.

Or-

ganic
only.

fredi
mat>

ter.

In
dry
mat-
ter.

In
freah
matr

ter.

In
dry

Food.

From

mat-
ter.

Oll-eake . .
Liaeecd, No. 1.
linaecd, No. S,
Barlej . . .
Midt . . .
CloverChaff .

June ft
June ft
Aug.SS
June ft
June ft
June ft

Oct. 17
Aug.SS
Oct. 17
Oct. 17
Oct. 17
Oct. 17

Sept. IS
Sept. IS
Sept. 18
Sept. IS
Sept. IS
Sept. 16

9 Samplet,
SftoK. each

TS*o«. >,

35 01. „

Sft OK. „

Sft OX. „
ftO OX. „

87*36
90*ft6
91 •&4
85'ft4

91 •65
84*66

81*88
86*88
87*46
8333
89*34
77*39

ft*48
4*88
4*08
8-31
S'Sl
7*37

6*37
4*73
4*45
8*70
S*ftS
8*ft8

&*01
3*68
4*05
1*49
I'ftl
3*11

ft*74
4*07
4*44

1*74
1*6»
S'SO

From these analytical results it appears that weight for weight
the oil-cake contained about 5 per cent. less dry-organic-matter
than the linseed; the former has, however, about one- third more
mineral matter, and nearly one- third more nitrogen than the
latter. We believe that such may be taken, as representing, in
general terms, the usual comparative composition of the two sub-
stances, as respects the constituents here named. We see, how-
ever, that one of the specimens of linseed contained 0-37 per cent,
less nitrogen than the other, and it must be understood that dif-
ferent samples of l)oth oilcake and linseed are found to vary con-
siderably from those referred to, and that the remarks made
above are only intended to indicate a general fact, and do not at
all do away with the desirableness of deciding upon the purchase
of foreign food or manure, only upon the resulu of special ana-
^ses, for the ready provision of which the Royal Agricultural
Society baM recently made arrangement open to all iu memben.

AjpricuUurul Chemistry — Sheep^Feeding and Manure. 27

The barley used in the experiments as such, and that which
was malted, were both of the same stock and quality ; the weight
of the malt prodaced was, exclusive of screened and kiln-Hiu^, only
about four*fifths of that of the barley operated upon, so that as the
weekly allowance of barley was 7 lbs. per sheep, that of malt
would have been little more than 5j^ lbs., instead of 6 lbs. 9 ok.,
as were actually consumed, if so much only were to be given as
was the produce of the amount of barley with which it was to
compare. Nearly one-half of the loss of weight sustained in the
conversion of the barley into malt was, however, only water,
and a portion of the remainder consisted of the " dust,** which, if
malting were adopted to any extent for feeding purposes, would
certainly not be separated from the malt ; and this, as we shall
afterwards see in discussing other experiments with barley and
malt^ is a point of some importance. Weight for weight, how-
ever, the malt is seen to be about 6 per cent, richer than the
barley in dry-organic-matter, and to be equal to it in mineral
matter and in nitrogen ; and it will be found that the quantities
consumed of the two foods were in fact almost identical, so far as
above-named constituents are concerned.

The following Table brings to view the total amount of food
consumed in the pens during the entire period of the experi-
ment—the total increeLse produced, and the amount of some of
the more important constituents contained in the food, these being
calculated from the Table of Analyses last given.

SERIES II.

Table 6. — Showiug the Total Amount of Food or Constitueuts consumed, and
of Increase produced, in each Pen, during the entire period of 19 Wedu.

Total

in Live
Weight.

Deeeriptiooa and

Quntitiee of the different

Food« eoneiimed.

Total

Dry

Oifanic

Matter

eon-

•omed.

Total

Mineral

Matter

oon-
SDined.

Total
Nitrogen

oon-
anined.

Nitrogen

in In*
ereaaeof

at
8 per cent

Nitrogen

in In*
craaoe,at
8 percent.

to 100
conanmed.

Ptal.
iSheep.

Itae.
IftSi

Oll-etke, 6«ft Ibe. . . .
Clover Chaff, 8,1084 Ihe. •

Total . .

Iba.
l,6t7

Iba.

8«4

158«

Iba.
83*81
44*88

Ibt.
• 4-6

Iba.
5*08

8,1714

1804

77«87

» Sheep.

148

Linaeed. M5 Iba. . . .
Clover Chaff, 1,8084 Iba. .

Total , .

577
1,478

87f

lS8i

85*50
40*16

}...

6*55

8,050

100

65*68

IVna
ft Sheep.

188

Btolej, <«ft Iba. . . .
Clover Chaff, l,868i Iba. ,

Total . .

568|

1,587

164

U44

9*90
41*90

1 •
4*8

8*11

8,0804

150|

81*80

ftibeep.

Itl

Malt, 888 Iba. . . . •
Clover Chaff, 1, 9784 ll»*.

Total . •

868*

1,587

144

I48i

9*48
41*68

)...

7*05

8,0854

1571

51*08

28 Agricultural Chemistry — S/teep- Feeding and Manure.

Taking the agerregate results of thlsTable, and again assuming
the approximate correctness of the estimate of the nitrogen con-
tained in the increase of animal produced, we find that by the
feeding of 20 sheep for 19 weeks^ during which time they con-
sumed 665 lbs. of oil-cake, 665 lbs. of linseed, 665 lbs. of barley,
625 lbs. of malt, and 7965]^ lbs. of clover- hay, the amount of
increase obtained is calculated to retain only 16f lbs. of nitrogen,
though 246 lbs. of it were supplied in the food, a result in this
respect considerably inferior to that obtained in the first series of
experiments, there being in that case 15^ lbs. of nitrogen retained
for 96 lbs. of it swallowed. We may notice too in this place, though
the point will presently be referred to in another form, that here
again it would appear, as in the case of the former series, that the
larger the amount of nitrogen consumed beyond a certain limit,
the smaller will be the proportion of it sent to market as meat.
The case of the malt in the 2nd Series is, however, somewhat
exceptional — a fact to which we shall again refer.

I'he amounts of dry - organic-matter consumed in each pen
during the entire period of the experiment, as shown in the
Table, when considerefl in connection with the nature of that
contained in each of the special foods supplied, and with the
total amount of nitrogen consumed, are such as pretty clearly to
indicate that the consumption of the clover-hay, which was su]>-
plied ad libitum, was regulated to a great extent by the demand
of the system for, or its competency to take up, digestible non-
nitrogenous substances^ I'hus there were 544^ lbs. of dry
organic substance contained in the oil-cake, and 577 lbs. in the
linseed, whilst of the smaller amount taken in the oil-cake there
would be a much larger quantity indigestible and at once effete,
and hence we find that more clover is consumed to make up the
deficiency. Again, taking the pens upon barley and malt, we
find the total 'amount of dry-organic-matter in th^se foods re-
spectively to be 553^ and 558J^ lbs. — a difference of only 5 lbs. ;
and although in the one case there would be a predominance ojf
starch, and in the other of sugar, yet the amounts of matters
capable of digestion, and of those which are at once effete, would
probably be very nearly identical, and hence we have a differ-
ence of only 10 lbs. in the total amount of dry-organic-matter
consumed in the form of clover-hay : and, taking ^e two foods
of each pen together, there is only a difference of 5 lbs., equal to
only 4 pel" cent, in the amount of dry-organic- matter consumed in
the two cases. Throughout all four of the pens, indeed, the
coincidence in that respect is very manifest, when the apparently
excessive amount in Pen 1 is explained as above.

That the demand of the system for nitrogen had little to do in
determining the amount of clover consumed, is evident from the

AgricaltuTal Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 29

fact, that, with the striking coincidences above noticed in the
amoants consumed of Tum-nitrogenous substances available as
food, the total amounts of nitrogen taken were — ^in the first pen,
77^ lbs. ; in the second, 65^ lbs. ; in the third, 5 If lbs. ; and in
the fourth, 51 lbs. It is true that the nitrogen and drj-organic-
matter are both nearly identical in Pens 3 and 4, but the nitrogen
of these differs much from that of either of the other two pens,
which again are widely different from each other — the variation in
amount in the four pens being as three to two. These indications
are interesting as pointing to the fact, that although nitrogen is a
very important constituent in the food of animals, yet the economy
of providing it in food, in quantity beyond a certain limit, must
depend upon other circumstances than the amount of meat pro-
daced.

These points will be further illustrated by a consideration of
Tables 7 and 8, which follow, in which the actual results of
experiment as ^ven in Table 6 are applied so as to show the
average weekly consumption of food in each pen, by each 100 lbs.
of live weight of animal, and also the amounts which were required
to produce 100 lbs. of increase.

It should be observed in reference to these Tables, that the in-
crease during the entire period of 19 weeks is taken as the basis
of calculation. It will be remembered, however, that the average
weekly increase at the end of the first 1 1 weeks, as given in
Table 4, was more favourable throughout the pens than that
after a further continuance of the experiment. This was par-
ticularly the case with respect to the pen on malt, and on refer-
ence to the details it will be found that several of the animals on
that food gained scarcely anything whatever during the last eight
weeks, though even at the earlier period the result was still rather
in favour of the barley as compared with the malt. It is evident,
therefore, that the indications, especially of I'able 8, are less
favourable throughout than they would have been had the ex-
periment been earlier closed, and that the results of the malt
pen are more affected than the rest. In vindication of the fair-
ness of the comparisons shown in the Tables it may be said, that
the results were less likely to be vitiated by accidental fluctuations
or irregularities, if taken on the longer than on the shorter
period, and that 19 weeks is not longer than animals are fre-
quently kept upon the same food when fattening for the market.
On the other hand, it may be urged, in reference to the malt,
that, in practice, it would not be continued so long without
change or further mixture with other food ; and indeed, it would
seem probable that, however genial to the health and tastes of the
animals malt may be when employed only to a limited extent,
yet after a time it loses its beneficial effects, probably nauaeatiag

Affricultttral Chemittry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure.

3S^S

■i

-^«

oeoo

-■H

????

ssss

????

r?rr

fill

•ti

^&SsS

~ii

2£S2

ilil

^|i

????

•P!

i-«

^:!:3

1
1

siss

ssss

2238

....

•Sit,

1
J

dii^

III!

SSS2
gSS5

i
3

§g3S

asss

s
s

?«??

-II

gsts

2ESa

^11

52 = i

-li

ill!

-II

^iU

1
1

iilf

»-ST

lift

1
1
1

liii

AffricuUural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 31

to some extent by virtue of the large amount of sugar it con-
tains.

From Table 7, we learn that the average quantities of dry-
organic-matter consumed weekly to 100 lbs. live weight of
animal y were, in Pens 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, in round num-
bers 16|, 15}, 16^, and 16]^ lbs. — amounts which, when the dif-
ference in the qualities of the food are considered, are probably
rery nearly ideotical, so far as the supply of the convertible nou'
nitrogenous organic substances is concerned. The mean of
these is about 16^ lbs., an amount which, as we shall see more in
detail when the results of the several series of experiments are
brought together, is about one-third more than was consumed in
the case of Series I., notwithstanding that the mean temperature
of the period of the latter was 40 ' 6, and that of this 2nd series
58 '4. The fact is, however, to be explained by a consideration
of the character of the foods employed in the two cases. In
Series I. swedes were the standard food, and in Series II. clover-
hay, which, compared with the former, would contain a very
large amount of inert woody fibre, and hence a much larger
amount of gross dry organic substance was taken into the stomachs
of the animals, to supply the same amount of that which would be
subservient to maintaining the heat or promoting the increase of
the body.

Looking, on the other hand, to the consumption of nitrogen in
the several pens by a given weight of animal in a given time, we
find here, as in the former series, a want of coincidence in this
respect, the amount, as shown in the Table, being, in the first
pen, 0*60 ; in the second, 0*51 ; in the third, 0*41 ; and in the
fourth, 0*40 lb. It may be observed, however, that the order of
increase in the pens is that of the assumption of nitrogen within
a given time, though the amount of it is not in exact proportion to
that of the nitrogenous supply. The average weekly consumption
of nitrogen m this series is, however, more than half as much
again as that in Series I«, whilst the rate of increase in the former
is less than that of the latter.

Thus, turning to Table 8, we see that, taking the mean of the
four pens, there were 474 lbs. of the special foods and 1442 lbs.
*of clover-hay consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in live
weight, and that these together contained 1521 lbs. of dry-oiganic-
matter and 44 lbs. of nitrogen, whilst there were in Series I. only
860 lbs. of the former and I9J^ lbs. of the latter required to pro-
duce the same amount of increase — there being therefore nearly
twice as much gross dry-organic-matter and more than twice as
much nitrogen consumed in the one case as in the other, to
produce the same effect ; from which we learn that the circum-
stances of adaptation of the animal and of the food^ ^ Vi^VL %& >Xi^

32 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure,

actual composition of the latter, materially affect the amount of
increase obtained.

Comparing the results of the several pens one with another,
we find that the amounts of food consumed to produce the same
effect were (excepting the case of the malt) such as to supply
nearly identical amounts of gross dry-organic-matter ; though,
allowing for the varying amount of effete matter in the several
substances, there would appear to have been notably less of such
as would be really available as food, in proportion as the supply
of nitrogen is greater. The amounts of nitrogen are seen to be
less uniform than in several cases in the former series, yet here,
as in the latter (excepting in the case of the malt), the increase
is less in proportion to the nitrogen consumed, the larger the
amount of the latter, though the actual increase is somewhat
greater. Indeed, whether we view the results alone or con-
jointly with those which have gone before, it may safely be con-
cluded that in all the pens in this second series the supply of
nitrogenous compounds within a given time exceeded the limit
that would have been required to yield the result obtained, pro-
vided the non-nitrogenous ones had been better adapted to the
season, and to the natural inclinations of the animals at the time.

If we take the indications of the malt-pen as given in the Table,
and calculated from the results of the entire period of the experi-
ments, we see that there was a considerably larger amount of
dry-organic-matter consumed in it, to produce a given effect, than
in any of the other cases, and the amount of nitrogen moreover
was considerably greater than in the case of the barley ; and when
it is considered that the dry-organic-matter of the malt would be
nearly one-tenth less than that in the barley from which it was
produced, the results tell still less favourably to the malt. If we
were to make the calculations upon the results of the first eleven
weeks, however, instead of the nineteen weeks as supposed
above, the comparison would still, though to a small degree, be in
favour of the barley, irrespectively of the cost of the malting
process.

Relying upon the results of these experiments, it would appear
that the increase obtained by the consumption of a given amount
of txnmalted barley is considerably greater than would be pro-
duced by the same amount after it had been subjected to the
malting process; and, indeed, that not only is the weight of the
malt considerably less than that of the barley which yielded it,
but that weight for weighty independently of loss and cost of pro-
cess, the feeding qualities of the former are not superior to those
of the latter. It would obviously be unsafe, however, to trust to
the results of a single experiment; and since, in the one in
9uesiion, dry food alone was given, the malt-dust was not em*-

AgricidtUTol ChemUtry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 33

ployed, and the use of the malt seems to have been continued
bejond the penod of its best result^ its indications may be open
to some objection. To these points^ however, we have paid par-
ticular attention in the conduct of further experiments on this
subject, and the results will be detailed in the sequel.

lo reference to the comparative effects of oilcake and linseed, we
observe that a larger amount has been required of the latter than
of the former, to produce the same gross increase in live weight,
whilst in a given weight of the two, a larger amount of nitro-
genous and of mineral matter would be brought upon the farm in
the oilcake than in the linseed ; the latter would, on the other
hand, contain more of the Tion-nitrogenous organic substances.
These points will be treated of more fully, however, when we
come to consider the comparative composition of the manures
obtained by the consumption of different descriptions of purchased
or saleable food ; and it will then be seen that a consideration of
them will materially assist in deciding upon the economy of one
food rather than another, when the results of the feeding-shed
may be uncertain in their indications.

Reviewing the more general results of the second series of ex-
periments, it is observed that there was upon the whole a greater
regularity in each pen upon the same food than in the former
one ; yet, that such again is the evident fluctuation in the apparent
progress of the animals, so far as it is exhibited by the scales,
that it would appear necessary to admit its occurrence as a general
fact, which, when the comparative value of foods is to be decided
by the increase in weight of the animals fed upon it, should never
be overlooked ; and further, that such is the variableness in the
amount of constituents consumed, and in the effects they produce,
according to their appropriateness to the demands of the animal
at the time, that not only may there be a larger amount of food
expended within a given time, but that its product of meat will
be defective in spite of a liberal supply of the more important
constituents as shown by analysis, provided these be not in such
state of combination and adaptation to each other us is suitable
to the season of the year, and to the habits and tastes of the
animals.

Experiments with Sheep. — Series III.

In the series of experiments last discussed, it was found that,
although the amount of the highly nutritive nitrogenous com-
pounds consumed by the animal was very large, yet the increase
produced was far inferior to that obtained from a less amount of
them in the case of the former series ; and, the results now to be
detailed will still further show, that the value of food depends
materially upon other circumstances than l\ie i^eT-C!etL\aj^<& cK.

34 Agrictdtarai Chemistry, — Sheep^Feeding and Manure.

these substances in them, though in the instances now before us
the sources of insufficiency will be found to be opposite in their
character to those already referred to.

The special object of this series was to trace the relative
feeciing and manuring values of turnips grown by different ma-
nures, by which, as we have shown in our paper on ' Turnip
Culture' in this Journal, the composition of the produce, espe-
cially so far as the per-centage of nitrogen is concerned, may be
materially influenced.

The turnips selected for the four pens were Norfolk-whites,
grown in the season of 1848, in continuation of the experiments
detailed in the paper above referred to. Those consumed in pen
1 were grown by mineral manures alone ; those in pen 2 by the
same manures, with sulphate and muriate of ammonia added ;
those in the 3rd, by the mineral manures, with rape-cake added ;
and in the 4th, with both rape-cako and ammoniacal salt, in addi-
tion to the mineral manures. These conditions, it will be re-
membered, are in kind the same as those supplied in the experi-
ments of the season of 1845; the quantities have, however, been
considerably varied, the amount of rape-cake being much in-
creased, and that of ammoniacal salt diminished, by which, as
will be explained on some future occasicm, the progress of the
plots relatively to each other has been somewhat altered.

In order that the amount of food consumed in each pen, and
the effects produced, might fairly be taken to be attributable to
the qualities of the different lots of turnips, and to their com-
petency or insufficiency to supply the wants of the system, it was
decided that the turnips should themselves constitute, almost ex-
clusively, the supply of food to the animals. It was thought,
however, that cut straw would interfere but little with the results
in this respect, and that it would assist in providing the hulk of
dry substance, which, independently of matters of more directly
nutritive quality, seems to be essential to healthy digestion in
ruminant animals more especially. It was found, however, that
although both straw and turnips were finely cut and mixed to-
gether for some time before being given to the animals, the former
was almost entirely refused, in consequence of which its use was
abandoned after a sufficient trial, and the turnips were given alone.
It could not be expected that the animals would do well upon such
food, but as the composition of the turnips was supposed to vary
very gready, especially as regarded the per-centage of nitrogen,
which is generally believed to determine, to a great extent, the
value of produce for feeding purposes, it was thought, that what*
over the results might be, they would not be without dieir lesson.
It happened, indeed, that many of the animals lost weight, yet
ibe reaulu, thus negative in their character, are found to provide

Affricukural Chgmuiry'^'^-ShBfp^Feeding and Manure. 35

mach oseful information as to the conditions, other than those of
mere per-oentage composition, which are required to constitute a
healthy food. Having reference, for the present, to this part of
the subject more especially, and leaving the question of the ma«
nure produced for future notice, it will not be necessary to give
the results in much detail, but only such a summary as will illus-
trate the point in question.

The animals taken were ewe lambs, bred upon the farm. About
one hundred were weighed November 27, 1848, from which six
were selected for each of the four pens. They were supplied
with Norfolk- white turnips from the commencement, but the
weighed quantities of those grown by the different manures were
not commenced until December 9, up to which time there was a
loss of weight in all the pens. The average weight of the animals
was about 75 lbs.

The Table in the following page gives some insight into the
composition and quality of the four lots of turnips.

In our former papers in this Journal we have called attention
to the fact, that, notwithstanding it is well known that turnip-
leaves are far inferior to the roots as food, yet they contain a
much higher per-centage of nitrogenous compounds, which, other
things beinff equals are taken to indicate the feeding value of dif-
ferent articles of food ; and we have suggested, that to the rela-
tively low state of elaboration of the constituents of the leaves may
be due their defective feeding properties, containing, as they do,
a comparatively large amount of matters, *' only brought within
the range of the organism, themselves as yet unorganized, and
existing as saline and other changeable fluids, to which we may
readily attribute a medicinal and purgative rather than a direct
nutritive effect — elaboration to some extent being, as we are aware,
an important element in the condition of food for animals." We
have further shown, too, that although the per-centage of nitro-
genous compounds io the root may be much increased by the use
of nitrogenous manures^ yet when these are in excess, the tendency
to the over-production of leaf will be much enhanced, whilst the
root, though richer in nitrogen, may not be profitably developed ;
and the results now to be detailed will sufficiently prove, that the
high per-centage of nitrogen in the root can no more than in the
leaf be taken as unconditionally indicating its feeding value.

Referring to the Table of composition just given, and assuming
that, other things being equal, a greater degree of ripeness or
maturity of specimens of turnips — after an equal period of growth,
and the produce of different manures — ^is indicated by a large
amount of dry matter, a small amount of mineral matter and of
nitrogen, and a small proportion of leaf to bulb — and, that a rela-
tively small nmount of dry matter, a large amoutvl ol mvckct^

36 Agrieukural Ottmutry — Sheep- Fieding and Mamin.

■31

fi.

M g J
I '^ «

'3»

S sis

? ? ? ?

¥\

f III

1 s s s

¥\

% sag

? ? T r

fi 3 S S

W¥

it 3 E S

«f

i1||l i i ^

i i i &

l & & &

1 11 ify
ft il fi if.

?i ji J J

i ill'

AgTricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 37

matter and of nitrogen, and a large proportion of leaf to bulb^
betray, on the other hand, to a great extent, a less maturity of
growth — we should at once decide, that of the four specimens of
turnips^ those consumed in pen 1 were the ripest^ those in pen 2
coming next, then those in pen 3, and that those in the 4th pen
were much below the others in this respect ; for^ we find the pro-
portion of leaf to bulb^ and the per-centages of mineral matter
and nitrogen, are progressively greater as we proceed down the
columns from the 1st pen to the 4th ; whilst, with a trifling excep-
tion in the case of the turnips consumed in pen 4, the per-centage
of dry-matter is in the inverse order. These inferences, indeed,
accord perfectly with the judgment which was formed of the
crops at the time they were drawn from the land, for the turnips
grown by mineral manure alone had become somewhat 'pithy ;*
those of pen 2. the produce of mineral manures and ammoniacal
salts, vfere fully ripe ; those of pen 3» from mineral manures and
rape-cake, were scarcely so ; whilst those of pen 4, having the
mineral manures, and both rape-cake and ammoniacal salts in
addition, were far behind the rest in fitness for consumption, and
indeed they were considerably short of this point. If, however,
X\ie per-ceiitage of nitrogen were to be our guide in deciding upon
the feeding value of the several specimens, the crude turnips of
pen 4 would far exceed the rest in this respect.

The results of the feeding experiments are arranged in the
three following Tables (p. 38). In the first are given the actual
quantities of fresh turnips, of dry-organic- matter, of mineral matter,
and of nitrogen, consumed in each pen by six sheep during 68
days, and the increase or loss of weight of the animals; in the
second is shown the weekly consumption of fresh food, and of the
several constituents, to every 100 lbs. live weight of animal; and
in the third, the amounts required to produce 100 lbs. increase
in live weight.

In explanaticm of the construction of the first of these Tables^
which supplies in fact, to a great extent, the materials for the
other two, we should observe, that — in order to avoid the error to
which it is supposed the determination of the quantity of swedes
consumed in the first series of experiments was subject, and
which was attributable to the constant loss of weight of roots after
removal from the land — ^in the present instance, 5 tons of each of
the lots of turnips were weighed as nearly direct from the field
as was practicable, and from this stock smaller quantities were
weighed out to the sheep as they were wanted. It was thus found
that the sum of the weights taken during the course of the experi-
ments, which ended about three months after the carting of the
turnips, fell short of the original amount by 20^ per cent, in the
turnips grown by mineral manures only, by 18 per ceut, \w \.Vv!(5^i&

38 Agriadturai Chemistry-

-Sheep' Feeding totd Manure.

•s'S
"I

1"^

At
jii

II
ii

111
,111

I III
If

ill 41

llii
lill

sir

/ /-"/

XZ^R

■f

SS::3

?2S*

iffi

= SSS

QH,

f°>?

?n''

?»•;?

.2 o

•s

f '

lill

—

£i

•s

^-s

5-S

_»_

■is

T-

^.s

£ P

£■!

"S ""

■■=

AffrieuUural Chemishy^-'Sheep^Feeding and Manure. 39

c;Town by mineral manures and ammoniacal salto^ bj 15^ per
cent, in those having rape-cake as well as the mineral manures,
and by 13^ per cent, in those having both ammoniacal salts and
rape-cake in addition to the mineral manures. It is evident
therefore, that the weights of the turnips, as they were given to the
sheep, by no means indicated the amount of such as originally
came to the shed ; and it will readily be understood that the error
from this cause in the estimate of the swedes consumed in the
case of the first series of experiments, might easily amount to
one^xth, or more, of the whole quantity supplied, as has been
already assumed.

The figures in the four columns constituting the first divisions
of the Tables, show the quantities of food or constituents con-
sumed, supposing the weights taken during the course of the
experiments to denote the quantities of turnips provided in the
state in which they were brought from the field ; and those in the
second divisions are obtained by calculating from the per-centage
of loss as given above, to what amount of turnips, in their original
state, those left at the end of the experiment would be equivalent
^-deducting this amount from the 5 tons brought to the shed, and
calculating what proportion of the remainder was consumed, and
what was ofial, according to the relative weights of these, as ascer-
tained as the experiment proceeded.

A glance at the Tables will show that the estimate of the con-
stituents consumed would have been very far below the truth, if
the analysis of the turnips as carted from the field, and the
weights as given to the animals from time to time, were taken as
the basis of calculation. It is obvious, however, that although the
fig^ures of the second division are much nearer the truth than
those of the first, yet they may probably slightly overstate the
facts ; for the per-centage of loss, or waste, would certainly be
somewhat higher upon the turnips which remained to the end of
the experiment than upon those which had been weighed at an
earlier period, from the amounts of which the per-centages as
given above are calculated. The discrepancy would not be great,
however, since the actual amount remaining at the conclusion
formed but a small proportion of the entire bulk, there having
been a considerable quantity thrown away as ofiTai throughout the
period, part of this being what the animals left in their troughs,
bat the greater portion those which were rotten, of which there
were more than twice as many in the turnips of the 4th than in
those in any of the other pens, there being least in pens 1 and 2.

These statements are only brought forward to illustrate the
fact that a considerable change of some kind or other takes place
in sQCColent food after it is stored, and to show that the estimate
of the quantity of constituents consumed to ^^oduc^ «i ^W^w

40 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep' Feeding and Manure.

amount of meat or manure, is subject to a wide range of mis-
calculation, unless special care be taken to avoid it. For our
present purpose we shall assume the jfigures in the second division
of the several Tables to be correct, though^ as will be seen when
we come to the question of the manure produced, some further
corrections may require to be made, which, however, are unim-
portant just now.

Looking to Table 2, and excluding the results of the 4th pen,
wherein all the animals lost weight, we find that upon this insuf-
ficient diet of turnips only, there were of them 22,260 lbs., or
about 10 tons, containing 1757 lbs. of dry organic matter, 140^^
lbs. of mineral matter, and 37^^ lbs. of nitrogen, consumed to pro-
duce 95 lbs. increase in live weight, which may be estimated to
contain about 3 lbs. of nitrogen. This result, as far as regards
the consumption of and produce by nitrogen, is as favourable as
that of the second series, wherein the amount of dry substance
in the food consumed was in excess rather than in defect, as in
the present instance : they are, however, less favourable than that
of series 1 .

Turning to Table 3, we see that the average weekly consump-
tion to 100 lbs. live weight of animal was about 1^ cwt., there
being, however, a smaller quantity consumed in pen 4, the roots
in that case being more unripe than in any of the other pens. The
comparisons will, however, he brought more clearly to view in
the column of dry-organic-matter consumed.

Thus we have to each 100 lbs. live weight, 141- lbs. in pen 1,
13 lbs. in pen 2, 124^ in pen 3, and only IHlbs. in pen 4, of dry-
organic-matter consumed weekly; and when we take into con-
sideration the comparative qualities of the several lots of turnips,
the relation of these quantities to each other would seem to be
just such as might have been anticipated, and to offer further in-
dication of the fact, that consumption, to a great extent, is regulated
by a demand for available non-nitrogenous organic constituents of
food. The highest amount of dry-organic-matter consumed was in
pen 1, where the turnips were too far grown, and such as are usually
termed pithy ; and it is probable, therefore, that the amount of
matters strictly applicable as food to the animal was less than in
pen 2, where the roots were less fully grown. In pen 3 there is a
less amount of dry-organio-matter consumed than in the former
ones, though it will be seen that the quantity of fresh rooU was
larger in this than in any of the other cases ; and it is probable
that, independently of the defective nutritive quality of these tur-
nips arising from their lower state of maturity, the large amount of
water necessarily swallowed with the food, would put some check
upon the quantity eaten, and thereby prevent the supply to the
ammah of as much as would provide the amount required for

Agricultural Chemisiry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 4 1

their health and increase^ of the fully elaborated substances. In
pen 4 there was much less drj-organic-matter consumed than in
any of the rest, whilst it would appear that the limit of consump-
tion was here less regulated by the amount of water taken with
the food than by the composition of the solid substance itself, which
was known to be not matured, and seems to have been quite unfit
for food, since all the animals lost weighty notwithstanding that
the weekly consumption of nitrogenous compounds was considerably
greater than in any of the other cases ; indeed, in pen 2, with a
gain in weight of 45 lbs., there was only 0*29 lbs. consumed per
week, whilst in pen 4 there was a loss of 20 lbs., with a con-
sumption per sheep per week of 0*39 lbs. of nitrogen — an amount
as great as that provided in the pen with oil-cake and swedes in
the first series of experiments I

Here then we have a striking illustration of the fact, that, how-
ever important the ultimate composition of food may be, its state
of combination may materially affect its value. Indeed it is seen
that doable the reqaisite amount of some of the more important
constituents of food may be expended upon the animal without
any benefit whatever ; and with these facts before us in reference
to the turnip bulb in different stages of growth and maturity, it
can scarcely be wondered at that the leaves^ notwithstanding their
high per centage of nitrogen, should be comparatively valueless
as food ; nor can it be doubted that the want of nutritive quality
is due, as we have before observed, to the amount they contain of
unorganized or deficiently elaborated constituents.

The variableness in the amount of ultimate constituents re-
quired to produce a given effect, according to their condition of
combination and elaboration, is clearly seen in Table 4, in which
are given the amounts of fresh turnips, of dry-organic-matter, of
mineral matter, and of nitrogen, which were consumed in the
several pens to the production of 100 lbs. increase in live weight,
the results, of course, of pens 1, 2, and 3 only being open to this
calculation. There is a difference in this respect, according to
the composition of the turnips in the several cases, of about 7
tons of the fresh roots — there being about 7^ tons consumed in
pen 2> about 11 j tons in pen 1, and 14| tons in the 3rd, or nearly
as many more as in the first. It is worthy of remark, too, that
in pen 2, the turnips of which were taken at the best stage of
growth, though their per centage of nitrogen was less than those
of pen 3, there is not only a less amount both of dry-organic-
matter and nitrogen consumed to produce a given amount of gross
increase than in either of the other cases, but the quantity of these
is less in this case, with common white turnips alone, than in any
of the cases of the second series of experiments, in which, as will
be remembered, there were given in one pen oil-cake aad clover-

42 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure.

cbaff, in one linseed and clover-chaff, in another barley and clorer-
chaff, and in another malt and clover-chaff.

The prominent inference from the results of the second and
third series of experiments — ^in the former of which it is sup-
posed that there was probably an excess of all required con-
stituents of foodj and in the latter at least of some — is, that in
neither were these in a favourable condition to meet the wants of
the animals ; and that if, as we believe to be the case, other things
being equal, the amount of nitrogen in food greatly determines its
value as such, there will be a very wasteful expenditure of it,
unless the food employed be suited to the tastes and circum-
stances of the animals ; and that if these points be not attended
to, any calculation as to the probable amount of meat and manure
respectively, produced by the consumption of a given amount of
food, will be uncertain and unsatisfactory. Under any circum-
stances, however, the attainment of so desirable an end as bringing
within the range of fixed rule and measurement the subtle, yet
not capricious, operations of animal life, would seem, from the very
nature of the subject, to he fraught with difficulty, as indeed the
results of experiment are found to furnish ample testimony.

Experiments with Sheep. — Series IV.

It was intended by this series of experiments further to test
the feeding and manuring value of barley and malt, compared
both one with the other, and with other articles of food. It will
be remembered that in the former experiments with these sub-
stances, the complementary food was clover-chaff; and, that the
animals not making much progress, this was supposed to be due
to the want of succulent food, which, however, could not at the
time be employed.

The present series was commenced in February, 1 849 ; and it
was at first intended to have given Swedish turnips with the other
foods, but it was feared that they would not remain in a good and
sound condition so long as the experiment was required to be
continued, and mangold- wurzel was therefore decided upon as
better suited to our purpose in some respects, though in others
not without objection ; for although the mangolds would remain
in a sufficient state of preservation to the end of the experiments,
yet they are seldom a genial food so early in the season as it was
required to use them, whilst sheep do not seem to relish them as
they do the turnip ; aud the results to be detailed will show that
these circumstances were not without their influence.

A flock of 100 three-year old wethers, which had been recently
fed in the field upon swedes and clover-chaff, were weighed
February 26, from which, according to weight and general simi-
hiilj of breeds 45 were taken, and 5 put into each of 9 of the ex-

AffnealbtrtU C^tmttry — Sktep'feedinff and Manure. 43

FaimentMl pern, it beinf^so arranged, that, as far aa poMible, each
■beep bod iu counterpart in weight and make in each of the other
pern, tboi^h within each pen the animals might in both these
Kspecta ahow a aomewhat wider difference. Sis of these pens
muijiiiMd the experiments now to be described, the other three
cooslitntin^ a series of thflnuelveB, uf which we shall speak here-
■fter.

When firct wmghed, the sheep were very dirty, and it would
bare been deair^Ie to have had them previously trimmed ; hut it
■as ooondered that they would compare with each other in this
n^wct, aad tfaat as it was intended to allow them a week or more
k> ^t acctntomed to the new food and wtuation before com-
mendng the exact experiment, they would by that ^me have lost
mndt of their adherent dirt, and that their second weights would
bt Kmewfaat unifMm. For some time, however, scarcely any of
tbe animals did well upon their food, by no means a fair allow-
ance of the mangolda being eaten. One or two of them, indeed,
it was foand necessary to kill ; and most were in such a condition
ss to reqoire that the commencement of the experiment should
be postponed until the animals had been three weeks in the pens,
during wbidi time none had done well. Many had, besides the
loss of dirt, apparendy depreciated in actual live weight also;
whilst tbe order within each pen, and the uniformity between one
pen and another, were considerably deranged, as will be seen by
>a in^tectioD of tbe following Table : —

SEaiEs rv.

Tablb 1.' — Showing the Weight of each Sheep and each Pen on
Feb, 26, when put up, and on March 20, when the experiment was
commenced. Quantities staled in lbs.

F-bnuty it.

»h<rn pgl up.

«-"'

r^vxr

■"'-

-r

T¥r

IVr

p-,.

1-,.,.

IVn

Ton

p™

P-n

9«p.

■

iaP

It)

441

1S«

13B

\st

ito

IXI

|3>

l«

ISl

111

l!3

;.,

107

•"""

'"••

'"■'

'"•'

..,,,

m,.|,.,..

1«

■" '"

134

Takii^ the first division of the Table, it is seen that the average
lire weight was tbe same in all the pens when the animals were
first pnt np, and that the weights of those bearing similar numbers
iu the different pens were also nearly identical. There is, how
ever, a difierence of about 10 lbs. between the heaviest and the
ligfateat sheep in each pen. The second division shows that, on
March 20, when tbe more exact experiment commenced, nearly

44 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure,

every sheep had lost — some very considerably — and the uniformity
between pen and pen, as well as between the sheep previously
supposed to match with each other in the different pens^ was also
lost, so far as weight is concerned. In some cases the loss was
probably chiefly dirt and moisture* though in some it was mani-
festly owing to an inaptitude of the food. This, however, can
scarcely in any case be attributed to the special foods, but much
more certainly to the mangolds, so that it would be unfair, in
judging of the effects of the former, to calculate the result from
the first weighing, though on the other hand a careful examination
of the tables of increase which will be given, will show that several
of the instances of rapid increase after the second weighing occur
where the animals had previously lost considerably, so that the
natural effect of the food during the actual experimental period
is from this cause occasionally s6mewhat overstated. For^ as we
have already remarked, any considerable loss arising from causes
of but temporary inBuence, is generally succeeded by an appa-
rently excessive gain, and vice versd. It is obvious that these
irregularities must to some extent depreciate the absolute legiti-
macy of the numerical results ; yet it is nevertheless thought that
attention thus being called to any probable sources of objection
to which the second weights are liable, they may be taken as the
fairer starting-point in comparing the effects of the several special
foods. These are, therefore, mainly relied upon, though the
results, as calculated from the first weighing of the animals, will
also be given, in order that the reader may form his own judg-
ment in the matter.

The special foods selected were barley y malt, and beans y the
latter chiefly as containing a much larger per-centage of nitrogen
than the former. They were allotted to the several pens as
under : —

Pen 1. — 1 lb. oi ground barley per sheep per day.

Pen 2. — Ground malt, with its dust (the produce of 1 lb. of
barley), ditto.

Pen 3. — 1 lb. of barley, ground and deeped, ditto.

Pen 4. — Malt and dust from 1 lb. of barley, ground and steeped,
ditto.

Pen 5. — 1 lb. of malt and dust, ground, ditto.

Pen 6. — 1 lb. of beans, ground, ditto.

The mangolds were supplied to all the pens in any quantitv
the animals chose to eat them. The beans were, from the com-
mencement, scarcely touched ; one of the animals fed upon them
had soon to be removed and killed, and the rest, with the excep-
tion of a single sheep, lost so much as to bring the average
weight down below that of any of the other pens — a result which
is oot easily accounted for by a consideration of the character of

Agricultural Chemistry -^Sheep- Feeding and Manure. 45

the food supplied. Ii was soon disconlinued, however^ and oil-
cake and swedes^ a few mangolds only being intermixed, were
given to the animals until they were supposed somewhat to have
regained their position, after which mangolds and oil-cake were
given alone.
The collected results of the experiments are given in Table II.
An account of the progress of those animals which either died
from illness, or were killed, is excluded from this Table; and it
will be seen that there was one such in pen I, with dry barley;
one in pen 3, with steeped barley ; one in pen 4^ with steeped
malt ; and one in pen 6, with the beans. No. 1 sheep, in pen 3^
also with dry malt, became unwell during the last few weeks of
the experiment, and it was found necessary to kill him a few days
after the experiment closed. As, however, his increase was fair
at the commencement, and he actually lived to the end of the
experiment, his weights are admitted into the calculations. This
bad result, as to the health of the animals, is sufficiently general
in the different pens to show that the explanation of it cannot be
sought in the character of the special foods employed. It is
indeed more probable that the mangolds, and perhaps not imma-
terially the confinement also, were at fault.

A glance at the top line of results in the Table will show how very
general throughout the pens was the loss of weight during the
first 22 days. In the bottom one is given the total gain of each
animal, inclusive of this preliminary period. This estimate, how-
ever, is an under-statement of the effects of the special foods, since
it is affected both by the amount of dirt and moisture lost, and by
the depreciation due to the inaptitude of the succulent food em-
ployed. The results of the experimental period, on the other
hand, being, as has been before observed, more probably in excess,
depending chiefly on some few cases of individual irregularity.
In some few instances, however, the somewhat excessive rates of
gain of single animals, after the commencement of the experimental
period, are seen not to have been preceded by a corresponding
loss, and in such cases the results of the experimental period are
not open to the objections referred to above.

The average weekly gain of the animals is given in Table III.

Looking across the columns of the Table, we see that whether
we calculate from February 28, as in the first division, or from
March 20, as in the second, the rates of increase of different
sheep upon the same food are very variable, and so general is the
irregularity in all the pens, that it cannot be determined that one
food was less subject to it than another. The variations are,
however, more prominent on the experimental than upon the
longer period^ — a circumstance already explained.

&> far as the average results can be relied upon aA \iiON\dvtv^ ^

46 AgrictUtural ChemUtry — Sha^F^ing and Mamirt.

Table 2. — Showing; the Weekly and the Total Increase of each ADimal
and Mean Weekly Increase in each Pen.

FModL

Foil.

PeD3.

Fran

No.
D.J..

ShHpNuobn.

wis.

sC.

4. 1 S.

,a.

P.b. IB

M«. M

a»

-r

-«

-I

-tl

-n

-a

-s l-s

April 3^

April S
U.y 'l

■!

■;1

:•

»i

-"'^i^'X^

„

UB,.0fp«lliBgup

•■

■•

FBkld*.

P«i3.

Peu4.

ItoB

3h„pNu«W

'^Kp.

>»-,«..»„.

,.-_

.c.

Feb. n

Hu. fO

-B

■

April's

AptiL 3
M.T 'l

■•

-i

.!!

]

0-0

tspcrimmul perioj

>■>

„

«'t

„

Total Iwnue Iton
un.arpamt.gDp

.«

Peri.^

Pmii.

Pens.

Fnm

No.

*Si,

a]i»FNu>l»..

JSr,

■i

Fob. !1

Mw. W

-■

-«

-n

!SS,1

M.r 'i

Apdl I

»i

-1

riprrlmrnUl period

„

tl-i»orputU,,g»p / » T

^r\r\v\

-^ffnemliural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 47

mSS

• ^■^

. «~i

£S

etf

£ s

s \

c. S

s i

-**
»^ I

& "

S .9

I*!

2 S

CO **

I S

s
I-

Sheep
No. 5.

o 0« •-«

•» .M ^

-1 o

Sheep
No. 4.

00 M <«•

^H VM vH

Sheep
No. 3.

:? :r » 5

•4* •#

.. ^ ^ .- ^ ^ 1

Sheep
No. 2.

o o -^

^•4

-- •
•
^•4

1 I

5 J « * « «

O O M >-• O •-•

s
a

• i • I

I s I a'^a I

? ? S ^ 8

Utti

'IS*

S K S R

^ « « ^ *» <o

48 Agricultural Chemistry— Sheep- Feeding and Manure.

measure of the comparative effects of the different foods, it appears,
taking either period, that the dry malt with its dust (the produce
of 1 lb. of barley), as in pen 2, gives a slightly higher increase
than the 1 lb. of dry barley y as in pen 1, but that in both periods,
again, the steeped barley of pen 3 gives a better result than the
steeped malt and dust of pen 4, and better, also, than either the
dry barley of pen 1, or the larger quantity of malt and dust, as in
pen 5 ; and it is remarkable, too, that in pen 3, with steeped barley,
which on both periods is thus seen to give the best result of the
five pens, there was a larger amount of mangolds consumed than
in any of the other cases.

Comparing the steeped malt and dust with the dry malt and
dust, we see that the dry gives the best results on the experi-
mental period, and the steeped on the entire period : the dis-
crepancy is due to the. fact of a dissimilar condition of the animals
in the two pens during the three weeks prior to the commence-
ment of the experimental period — those on the dry malt losing in
aggregate weight, whilst those on the steeped took better to their
food at first, and did not, therefore, like the others, give afterwards
an unnaturally rapid increase.

The barley and malt were at first both steeped for about 12 or 14
hours, but it was thought that the barley at least was not suffi-
ciently softened, and therefore the time of soaking was extended
to 36 hours or more for both malt and barley. This seemed to
increase the relish with which the barley was taken, but the malt
was almost entirely refused, and so long as it was thus prepared
very few mangolds either were eaten, and within a few days all
the sheep were seen to be deteriorating, and one was necessarily
removed and afterwards killed. When, however, the short time
of steeping was returned to, the animals took their food again,
and progressed as well as before. Upon the whole, it may at
least be said that there is much less necessity to steep malt than
barley ; and if the former be improved at all by such treatment,
it should be exposed to it for a few hours only. The steeping of
barley, however, from 30 to 40 hours, has been seen to increase
the gross increase in live weight beyond that of the same amount
of barley dry, of malt and dust, the produce of the same amount
of barley, either dry or steeped, or than the dry malt and dust,
the produce of one-fourth more barley.

These results are, it is admitted, wanting in some respects in
that regularity which is calculated to give undoubted confidence
in the conclusions to which they lead, and it is possible that the
mangolds, containing as they do such a very large amount of sac-
charine matter, may on this account be somewhat less appropriate
as an accompaniment to the malt than to the barley. Upon the
whole, however, we see in the facts adduced in reference to this

Agriculiural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 49

series, as well as to the one previously discussed, nothing whatewr
that is favourable to the malt, as compared with the barley ; and,
indeed, taking the results as they stand, the simpler process of
steeping seems prominently to exceed in effect the more expensive
one of malting. As, however, we have before remarked, grass
increase is but a conditional indication of the prepress of the
animal, as we shall endeavour to illustrate further on.

As a check upon these trials between barley and malt in the
shed, the remainder of the flock, after the selection for the expe-
rimental pens had been made, were allotted, sheep by sheep,
according to weights, into two nearly equal sets. To one of these
were given i lb. of barley and j^ lb. of clover-chaff per sheep per
day ; and to the other, malt and dust, the produce of ^ lb. of barley
and i lb. of clover-chaff; the two lots being penned side by side in
the field, and both allowed as many swedes as they chose to eat.
The results are given in the following Table :— *

Tabub 4. — Showing the Total and Average Weekly Increase per
Sheep, of 27 Animals fed with Malt, Clover-Chaff, and Swedes;
and 27 upon Barley, Clover-chaff, and Swedes, both lots in the field,
during a period of 9 weeks.

NuBber

of
Sheep.

Devtiption and Qnantitiee of Food
per Sheep per Week.

Total

Weight

in lbs.

March IS.

Total

Weight

In lbs.

May 14.

Total
Gain in
0 Weeks.

Weekly

Gain

per Sheep.

ST
S7

C Si Iba. CloTer<liaff ; Si Iha. Barley ; and )
t Swed«i»adUb. .....•.;

fS| lbs. aover-chair, MaU and I>iut,|
I prodiieedfrom8|iba.ofBarley ; andV

8609
8598

4070
408fti

468
487i

l*14f

I'lsi

In this experiment it cannot be considered that the food was
either ill adapted to the habits or tastes of the animals, or to the
season of the year at which the trial was made ; and here again,
as in the previous trials, which might by some, perhaps, be con-
sidered to be open to more or less objection, we have a result
still in favour of the barley. The difference, it is true, is not
great ; yet, if it be not sufficient to show a decided superiority in
the barley as compared with the malt, it nevertheless clearly
indicates that there was no advantage in the use of the latter, the
more expensive substitute ; and since the result, as here given,
does not stand alone, but is consistent with those of the two pre-
ceding trials, we must confess that at least, so far as the produc-
tion of gross increase or live weight of sheep * is concerned, we
can see nothinir in the experiments which should favour the opinion

* Hm qoettioD as to tbe utility of malt as food for o^pm is of course only settled by
bicKDee from these experiments with tkttp ; but even were it shown that the effects were
gieatff with the formet than with the latter, the cost of the malting process and the
depieciatiou of the manirn would have to be coiindei«d befon decidu^u^vgoiLvX&^QSit*

50 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure.

that the extended use of malt would be of any material benefit
to the farmer.

The animals on oil-cake, in pen 6, are seen to show a much
higher increase than those in any of the other pens. Since, bow-
ever, they had not, at the commencement of the use of that food
(with the exception of a single animal), regained the weights as
at first put up, it is probable that the rapid increase afterwards
may unduly represent the effects of the oil -cake, so that we do
not much insist upon the comparisons they might otherwise afibrd
in relation to the question of increase, though the results will not
be open to objection on this account^ when we come to the material
one of the manure produced.

We now turn to a consideration of the composition of the several
foods consumed ; and in the following Table are given the results
of analyses in reference to their contents in dry organic substance,
in mineral matter, and in nitrogen : —

SERIES IV.

Tablx 6.-— Showing the particulars of Sampling, and the per Centage of Dry
Matter, Ash, Nitrogen, &c., in the several descriptions of Food consumed.

DescHpCion of Food, Particnlan of Sampling, &e.

Per-eentage Compositton.

Period of
Coasomptloa.

Particolais

and

Date of

Sampling.

Weight
Uken

for
Dr^ng,

Dry Matter.

Ash.

Nitrogen.

•
Daserintion

Incla-

sive

Ash.

Or-
gsnie
only.

fkesh
sub-

In
dry

In
ftesh
snb-

•

From

dry
matter.

Long Bed Man-
gold, No. 1
Ditto, No. S

Mar. SO
Apr. 17

Mar. SO
Mar. SO

Mw.so
Apr. 17

Apr. 17
MaySS

MaySS
May SO
MaySS
MaySS

Mar. 16

Apr. 80

Mar. IS
Mar. IS
Mar. IS
Apr. S6

lbs. OS.
»o s

46 7|
Mean . .

S samples,

lOOos.esch
S samples,

100os.eseh
S samples,

I00os.esdi
S samples,

S6 0B.eeeh

1S'04
1314

11*938
18*161

1*00S
0*979

7«74S
7*447

0«S0
0-S8

S*S6

S*18

Bsrioy • • •
Malt ...

MaltDnst. .
OOeako. . .

13*04
61*64
OS'SS

9S*76
89 '74

IS*049

79*61

9S'78

•

85*06
83*60

0*990

s*ss

S*60
8*70
6*1S

7-896
S*84

S*78

9*ie

6*8t

0-S9
1*45
l*fS
4*10
5*S6

S*S7

1*78
1-70
4*S«
6*87

The two lote of mangold-wurzel were from different fields.
No. 1 having been somewhat more highly manured than No. 2 ;
and we find at the same time a slightly higher per-centage of
nitrogen in the former than in the latter. This might have been
due to changes in the clamp as the season advanced, the lot
No. 2 bemg sampled and used later than No. 1. The relative
uer-centag^ of dry matter and of ash in the two specimens support
»^--««v«r. that there was in reality some variaticm in the

Jlgrieuburdl ChemiMry — Sheep^Feeding and Manure. 51

oompotition of the mangolds as produced ; for with the higher
maniirii^;' and higher per-centage of nitrogen we have a lower
amount of drj substance, and a higher amount of ssh> conditions
which lead to the supposition that the plants were not so ripe
when drawn from the land as the others ; and it is not improbable
that mod of the bad eflectof the mangolds at the commencement
was, in fact, doe to a deficient maturation, which both analysis
and experience would indicate was more perfect as the season
progTg*igd. For our present purpose the mean composition of
the two specimens will be taken as su£Bciently near the truth.

The Oil-cake here, as in former instances, is seen to contain a
considerablj higher perwcentage of nitrogen than any of the foods
tried by its side-— indeed, weight for weight, it contains more than
three times as much of that element as either the barley or the
malt. The important fact is here seen also, that the malt-dust
contains about 2^ times as high a per-centage of nitrogen as the
screened malt; from which we learn, that although the quantity
of '' dtui** bears but a small proportion to that of the malt, yet it
may on this account be of much importance that it should not be
separated from malt which is to be used as food. The *' malt'
iuii** is, moreover, richer than the malt, in mineral matter, to
a greater extent than in nitrogen. The malt is seen to be,
weight for weight, considerably richer than the barley in dry
organic substance, and rather so in mineral matter and in nitro-
gen ; the weight of the malt, however, being much less than that
of the barley which produced it, this superiority in composition is
owing to the loss of water only; and we see, accordingly, that both
mincnl matter and nitrogen, though higher in the midt in the fresh
state than in the barley in the same, are in a lower per-centage
to the dry organic substance.

We shall now give such a sketch of the malting^process as will
aid a conception of the losses to which the barley submitted to it
issobject.

The malt used in the Jirst series of experiments was made at
the premises of Mr. William Lattimore, of Wheathamstead, who
kindly observed and supplied an account of the weights and mea-
sures of the barley, and of the malt, and of the ** dust " produced.
The process was, however, in this case conducted very late in the
malting season ; and as the sampling for analysis was not made at
the time of taking the weights, and as both malt and dust gained
moisture, and therefore weight, very considerably after leaving
the kiln-room, it was not thought that the results of further ex-
amination in the laboratory would be snfficiently trustworthy to
repay the expenditure of labour.

In order to trace with more certamty some of the changes
which take place daring the process, permisidou was aaked and

52 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep^Feeding and Manure.

freely granted by the Board of Excise to disturb the ** floors/'
and remove samples for analysis from time to time, at the malting
of Mr. Curtis of Harpenden, who kindly furthered the end in
view by his assistance and advice.

The barley being all measured over, the weight of every eighth
bushel being taken, an average was struck from which the actual
weight of the barley to be steeped could be calculated. The
grain, as is well known, first remains for a certain time in a cistern
under water, where it swells considerably, having absorbed a large
quantity of water, and lost by solution a considerable amount of
saline matter and of organic substance containing nitrogen. The
water being run off, the ^' wetted " grain is then removed to the
** couch," where it remains for some time in a layer of from 12 to
16 inches in depth. It is afterwards spread out at a less depth on
the floor, and is frequently turned over, and moved along by degrees
from time to time, until it is conceived to be sufficiently grown,
when, provided it has been in progress as long as is required by
the rules of the Excise, it is dried in the kiln, where it is placed
upon a frame of wire-gauze, which allows more or less of the
young shoots or " dust *' to pass through ; this portion being then
called " kiln-dust,^* which being contaminated with the ashes from
the furnace is rendered unfit for food. The remainder of the
young shoots still adhering to the grain is separated by treading
and screening, and the dust thus obtained is distinguished as
*' maU'dust,* and is valued for feeding purposes.

Samples were taken of the barley, of the wetted barley in the
couch, and several times afterwards from the ^'floors," at intervals
of about four days, and finally from the malt and the several qua-
lities of dust ; and the following Table provides a view of the re-
sults of analysis so far as already proceeded with, and as is essential
for our present purpose, though specimens of all the products
have been sufficiently dried for preservation, in order that the
subject may be more fully worked out when leisure shall

permit : —

SERIES IT.

Tablb 6. — Showing the Composition of Specimens of Barley, and
products, taken at intervals as the Malting process proceeds.

Ditoof

Length

of
Period
(Day.).

Deieription

of
Spedmeni.

I^ Matter.

Mineral Matter.

Nitrogen.

SempUnf.

Indasife

Aah.

Orguiio
only.

Pkeah.

In Dry

Matter.

In
Fiedu

In Dry
Matter.

Feb. 14
... !•

Manb S

n <

• •

DryBwlej . . .

I& the ooofBh . .

Gfowing • . . .

Ditto. . . .

Ditto. • . .

MaU

MeltDBfCftKflBDiist

61 'Si
67 '74
57*66
56 'SS
66*6S
59*76
95 '69
96*76

79*51

91*76
86*06

9*665

t*606

6*70

9-641

f7S

9*965

1*45

1*69
4*10

1*76

1*70
4*66

AgrioiJtural Chemuiry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure* 53

For the purposes of these determinations four samples were
Qsoallj taken, each consisting of 100 ounces. All of these were
immediately so far dried in a stove as to prevent their further
growth, and render them fit for preservation. Two of the lots
were then fully dried and burnt^ thus giving the per-centages
of dry- matter and ash respectively ; the other samples remaining
for further examination at any future time.

From the first colunm of Table 6 we learn that the barley
acquired nearly half its weight of water in the steep-cistern, and
that this amount was gradually reduced as the growth proceeded,
iofg the per-centage of dry matter is seen to increase at a some-
what uniform rate of progression. The exhalation would appear
to be somewhat more rapid as the process advances, for it is greater
during the period from the 22nd to the 26th than in the previous
one, notwithstanding 568 lbs. of water had been sprinkled upon
the floor.

At the period of each of these samplings the tohole of the grain
on the floor was measured, and the weight of every eighth bushel
taken, from which the average being struck, the actual weight on
the floor could be determined.

The actual and the applied results of these measurings, weigh-
ings, samplings^ dryings, &c., are arranged in the following
Tables:—

SERIES IV.

Table 7. — Showmg the Actual and Corrected Quantities of Barley, Malt,
and Intermediate Products of the Malting Process*

•

Dewriotkm
opeoHiemi

Namber

of
Bodieb.

Weight

per
BadMl.

Actual

Qoui- Qomntity
titiee . taken
■a for
Weighed Samplea.
iniba. ;

Cor-
rected

Total

Weight

inlha.

Fnth.

Total

Dry

Hatter

inlba.

Total

Dry

Organic

Matter

inlba.

Total
Mineral
Matter
inlba.

Total

Nitrogen
inlba.

^^u

. •

Dvyltariey

144

7,688

• •

7,638

6,846

6,068J

1774

110*6

n IS

btlweoadli

• •

TCI

Gitmiog .

tdlj

411

10,488

10,504

6,0774

.> M

Ditto . •

f88

10,868

10.414i

6,0684

Xir.S

Ditto . •

S9S

831

»,941i

10,0104

5,889

.•«

Ditto . •

• .

'•.

• •

.f 7

Mdt • .

6,887f

• •

6.8071

5,6854

5,4814

158*90

95*7

MalMoat.
KUn-doflt.

1901
76}

a •

866

8494

8844

83*14

10*90

54 AgricuUurai Chemistry— 'Sheep-Feeding and Manure.

Table 8. — Showing the Proportion to 100 of Barley, of the several

Products of the Malting Process.

Data
of

SunpUng.

I'll

Description
SpeeimoBs.

Fren.

Dry

Matter.

Dry
Organic
Mstter.

Minend
Matter.

Nitrogen.

Fob. 14 .
., «« .

Mtt. 3

• •
8
4
b

Barley ....
Ditto, growing . .
Ditto, ditto . • .
Ditto, ditto. . .

100
137
136
130

100
97*30
97*07
94*28

100

Mar. 7 .

Malt

Malt^ast)
Kiln-dost y- ' *

77*41
8*48

90*28
3*99

90*82
. 8*85

8«*74
18*04

86*92

9-85

Total prodncti . .
Low .... .

80*89
19*11

94*21
5-79

94*17
5*83

99*78
0*22

96*27
3*68

TV)tal

100*00

100*00 100*00

100*00

We learn from Table 8, that although the weight of the pro-
duced malt was 22^ per cent. less than that of the barley which
yielded it, yet the loss in dry substance was less than half as much ;
that of mineral matter and nitrogen is, however, propo|tionably
greater than that of the gross dry vegetable substance. If, how-
ever, we include the '' dust,^^ or young shoots, as a product of the
process, the loss is considerably lessened, for then we have a reduc-
tion of scarcely 6, instead of 10 per cent, of dry organic substance,
and of scarcely 4 instead of 134 per cent, of nitrogen. The losi
in mineral matter also would appear from the figures to be still
less considerable, when the dust is received into the calculations :
as however the crude ashes of the products are here assumed to
represent their mineral. contents, it is obvious that the estimate of
them in the Table is somewhat too high, and this indeed is the le«
to be doubted when the large amount of saline substances tarried
oif in the steep water are borne in mind. It is worthy of especial
remark that the nitrogen in the " dust ** amounts to jth as much as
is contained in the whole amount of malt produced ! It is evident
then, that when malt is used for feeding purposes, the important
nitrogenous constituents of food are reduced by about 13 per cent,
of the entire amount contained in the barley, unless the '* dust '*
he also supplied to the animals. Whilst, judging from the quali-
ties of other highly nitrogenous yet young and very succulent vege-
table substances, it would appear by no means improbable that the
9 or 10 per cent, of the whole retained in the dust may have lost
much of its nutritive properties. We have, however, seen on several
occasions in the course of our report that the condition and quality
of the n(?n-nitrogenous constituents of food, as well as those of the
nitrogenous ones, materially determines its productive- effects; and
if the results of experiments in the shed, or in the field, were found
clearly to bear testimony as to the increased value of barley as food
after being subjected to the malting process, we should be bound

Affrieultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 55

to conclude that by the conversion of the starch into sugar, or
whatever the changes may be, the loss of the admittedly valuable
nitrogenous compounds had been, to a certain degree, compensated.
Our experiments with sheep, however, have led us to no such con-
clusion, whilst an analytical examination of the malting process has
shown that in the baxley submitted to it there is a reduction in
some of its constituents which must obviously influence the value
of the manure resulting from the consumption of the produced
malt. Whilst, however, the results detailed do not in any degree
encourage the idea that a much more extended use of malt for
feeding purposes would prove to be of essential service to the
farmer, we at the same time do not doubt, that, leaving out of view
its cost, and the consideration of the comparative value of the
manure produced, its occasional employment in admixture or
alternation with other articles of food, may have a favourable influ- -
ence upon the progress of the animal ; and, indeed, when used as
a relish rather than as a staple article of food, it is as such an use-
ful and ^nial auxiliary. But, in speculating as to the economy of -
its adoption, the loss of manuring constituents must always be
charged against it ; whilst the cost of the process of manufacture,
as estimated by Mr. Curtis, would, at the lowest calculation, amount
to 2#. 6el. per quarter on the barley, provided the process were
conducted as is usual for brewing purposes. It is probable, how-
ever, that a comparatively partial growth might yield a somewhat
better result, with a cost and loss proportionally reduced ; and such -
a process might indeed be suggested for trial as an improvement
upon that of merely steeping, in cases where it may be deemed
expedient to consume the highly elaborated* cereal grainis upon the
iann.

Having given some account of the per centage composition of
the several foods employed in the experiments, and of the pre-
paration of the malt, we now turn to the application of the in-
formation thus provided to the actual facts of the feeding experi-
ments themselves.

In the next Table are given the total increase in live weights
in the several pens during the 10 weeks of the experimental
period, and the total amounts oi fresh foody of dry organic matter,
of mineral matter y and of nitrogen consumed to produce it.

* It M trae that the laxnples of the cereal grains which are generally uied as food for
itock are not as cereal grains ** highly elaborated ;" though when compared with other
articUM of cattle food rf hotM. production they are so in an eminent degree, whilst
they have been produced at a cost which would require that their beneficial effects
apoD the animal should be very considerable, if it is to be repaid by their consumption

Etbe fann to a great e&tent as the means of obtaining manure, the nltimate Ajed
idk 19 the reprodtiction of the eame detcription ^produce, but poisibly of a
quality.

56 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep- Feeding and Manure.

SERIES IV.

Table 9. — Showing the Total Amount of Food or Constituents consumed,
and of Increase produced, in each Pen, during the Experimental Period.

Total
Increase
in Live
Weight

in 10
Weeka.

Description of Food
consumed.

ToUl
Food
Con-
sumed
Fiesh.

Total
Dry
Organic
Matron-
Con-
sumed.

Total

Mineral

Matter

Con-
sumed.

Total
Nitrogen

Con-
sumed.

Nitrogen

in
Increase

at3
perCent.

Nitrogen
in

Inerem
(at 3

peiCrat.)

to 100

Con-

suflbed.

Ftal

BarleyrOround bat not Steeped )
Mangolds ....

Total .

280*0
3867*0

922*64
465*93

6*51
38-28

4*06
11*21

2*48

lft'91

Sheep

4147*0

688 57

44*79

lft-27

Pens

flheep

10ft

Malt (Ground bfut not Steeped)
Maltl)ust ....
Mangolds ....

Total .

«7l'2ft

12*03

4693*60

251 67

10-23

565*53

7*06

1*04

46*46

4*39

0*49

13*61

8*lft

17*03

4976*88

827*38

54*56

18*49

Pen S

lOli

Barley rOroond and Steeped),
Mangoloa . • • .

Total .

280-0
ft32l*7

223*64
641*21

6*51
52*68

4*06
1ft *43

3*04

1S*62

Sheep

5601*7

863*85

59*19

19*49

Fttn4

Sheep

Malt (Ground and Steeped) .
MaltDnat ....
Mangolds • . « .

Total .

217*0

9*6

44ft8*0

201*34

8*16

537*14

5*6ft

0-83

44*13

8*51

0*39

12*92

*
234

13*91

4684*6

746*64

10*61

16*82

Ftaft

Sheep

108

Malt (Ground hot not Steeped)
Malt Dust «...
. Mangolds ....

Total .

SSft'O

Ift'O

5403*9

810*82

12*76

651*11

8*72

1*30

53*49

ft*42

0*61
lft»67

3-14

14*93

5753*9

974*69

63*ftl

21*70

Pen6

In
6 Weeks

OilCake ....
Mangolds . • • •
Total .

142*8
2635*9

128*14
817ft9

8*73
26*09

7*ftl
7*64

2*19

14*44

Sheep

2778*7

445*73

34*82

lft*lft

ePtons,

S«
Sheep

ft46i

Total special food .
Total mangold wunel .

Total •

1562^
263804

1368i
3178i

46*3ft
261*13

30*44
76*48

16*39

S7942f

4547

307^

106*92

The comparative indications of this Table will be more con-
veniently studied when the results are arranged to an uniform
standard, as in those which shortly follow; but, attention may
here be recalled to the enormous expenditure of food and its
constituents to obtain a comparatively small amount of market-
able produce, as shown in the a^regate result given at the foot
of the Table. It is seen that for the production of 546^ lbs. of
increased live- weight, there are consumed 1,562 lbs. of barley,
mult, or oil cake, and 26|380 lbs., or nearly 12 tons, of mangold
wurzel — together containing 4,547 lbs. of dry organic substance,
307i lbs. of mineral matter, and 107 lbs. of nitrogen. It may
be observed too that, on the supposition that the increase pro-
duced pretty constantly contained 3 per cent, of nitrogen, the
-amount of this element stored up in the animal, in proportion to

Agrieukural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 57

that tnppUed in the food, is more uniform throughout the pens,
sod th^ the average amount is greater in this than in the former
series of experiments.

In the following Tables are given the amounts of food or con-
stituents consumed weeklj in each pen, to every 100 lbs. live
weight of animal, and also the amounts consumed to produce
100 lbs. increase in live weight.

In the first division of Table 10 we at once observe that there
was a considerably larger quantity of mangold-wurzel consumed
per week to an equal live weight of animal, with the steeped
harley^ than with any of the other foods ; and if we turn to the
second division of the Table, we shall gather that this cannot
altogether be accounted for by the demand of the system for non-
nitrogenous organic matter, unless, indeed, there was in this case
a more rapid expenditure of food than in the others, which how-
ever not improbably was the case, since in this instance the in*
crease was greater than in the rest. There is, nevertheless, some
indication that such demand did so operate to a certain extent.
Thus, taking the instances of pens 1 and 3, in both of which the
special food was barley, we find that with the smaller amount of
dry organic substance in the barley (of which the composition,
though not the condition, would of course be similar in the two
cases) of pen 3 than in that of pen 1, there is at the same time in
the former a more than compensating increased amount consumed
in the mangolds ; and again, taking pens 2 and 4, with malt,
we see that with the smaller amount of dry organic matter
consumed in the malt in pen 4, there is at the same time an
increased amount in the mangolds. The 5th pen, also having
malt as a special food, is, however, quite an exception to this
rule ; for with about one-fourth more dry organic substance in
the malt than in either pen 2 or pen 4, we have at the same time
a lai^r quantity consumed in the mangolds, the cause of
which may possibly be sought in the fact before alluded to, of
a more active circulation and passage of the food in and
through the body, dependent here probably upon the larger
amount of the more fully elaborated and less amount of the crude
constituents of the food as supplied in the malt. It is interesting
to observe, too, that, excepting pen 6, there is almost identically
the same order observed in the supply of nitrogen as in that of
the dry organic matter in the respective foods of the several pens.
This is a result very contrary to that obtained in the former
series, but as there was here a much more uniform proportion of
the nitrogenous to the Ttw-nitrogenous compounds in the several
foods than in those of the other cases, it is not in any degree
opposed to the conclusion before arrived at, viz. that consumption
is, within a certain limit, regulated more by the amount of the

•s

j^riaiitural Ornxutry — Sheep- Feeding oiuf Maimri.

?|5SU

-II

^|Hs:

nnn

1
1
1

-•IJ

mjn

'}}

»?5P??

??=??l

'li

«?;??s

-M

nnn

-U

imn

I
I

'11

nissc

-y

1
f

■4

■uv
i|ii

iiliil

I'"".:

-w

1
1
1

'11

-B

'li

mill

'li

SSESC9

csasss

1
1

'ji

iiliil

•41

liiiii

-iJ

iiiUi

1
1

I'vr:.

Aynadtural Chemidry — Sheen-Feeding and Manure. 59

ffon-nitTogenons, than of the nitrogenous consUtuents supplied in
the food ; whilst the much larger amount of the latter consumed
in the oil-cake pen than in any of the others, with, at the same time»
anearlj identiosl amount of the former, would seem to afford con-
firmation of this supposition.

Tnmii^ to Table II, we observe a striking uniformity in the
quantities of nitrogen consumed to produce a given amount of
increase. It is seen, however, that the case most exceptional in
this respect is that of the dry malt in pen 2, in which, according
to the Table, a less amount both of dry organic matter and of
nitrogen has been required than in any of the other cases with
malt or with barley. It has been before explained, however^
that the indications of that pen, as calculated on the experimental
period, were probably more open to objection than those of the
rest, whilst the results of pens 4 and 5, the one with steeped and
the other with the laiger amount of dry malt, would seem to dis-
prove the correctness of the conclusions to which the figures as
they stand might lead. It has also been supposed that the
effects due to the oil -cake in pen 6 may probably be somewhat
overstated in the Tables : if this be not the case, however, the
figures in this Table may be taken to show, that in the pen with
oil-cake, wherein ,the consumption of nitrogeo, both within a
given time and in proportion to other organic constituents, was
half as great again as in any of the other pens, the amount of it
oonsomed to produce a g^ven amount of increase is almost
identical with the average of the other pens, whilst that of the
grass dry organic matter is very much less than in any of the other
instances. This fact, if it be to be relied upon, would lead us
to conclude that the nitrogen taken in the pens with barley and
malt, though proporuonally uniform throughout, was insufficient
in amount to turn to full account the large quantity of highly
perfected nan- nitrogenous compounds as supplied in the cereal
grains in these cases. The weekly supply of it, indeed, was not
much below the average in the former series, but in these the
food was rarely, if ever, so rich in the more perfected non- nitro-
genous constituents as in the instances at present under notice.

It was our intention to have given the results of a fifth series
of experiments with sheep before leaving the question of the
grou increase in live weight of the animal; as, however, the de-
tails connected with this branch of our subject have already ex-
tended beyond the limits originally anticipated, we shall defer, until
some future occasion » the further consideration of such matter.
Before closing the present article,^ however, it will be useful to
provide in a tabular form a summary of some of the results
already discussed, and to this we shall subjoin a collected state-
ment of any of such results of other observers in relation to this
%nhject as we at present remember to have met Yn\\i»

AffHcultaral CkemtOty — Sheep'Feediiy and Manure.

TkWti 1. — Showinj; the Weekly ConsumpUon of Dry Organic Matter
and of Nitr(^;«n for each 100 lbs. Live Weight of Animal, aa indi-
cated by the results of the seveial series of Experiments with Sheep.

Dmr Oboinic Mirtas.

Sdiu 1.

S„.»S.

Sn>i>3.

9«.M«.

Sp«irfFood,

BpedilFood:

Mli.STMj'M.i

Siff:

Oll«k=.C«.,
Clovn-chXT;

■nd Ript^i)»;

SfE

a-«i-.

M>ngDld..

p™l

12-31

16-71

U-33

I2'92

Pen!

12-94

15-87

13-00

11-72

Pel. 3

Id -76

^■37

li-iO

N-69

P«i4

11 -2-1

16-54

11-23

12-47

Puns

13-52

Pen 6

13-08

He^D . .

12-Sl

16-37

12-75

I2-9S

8™=..

Sniiii.

S<»ul.

8».,..

Special Food:

NmWI, Whiw,

SpfcUl Food :
IkrUy (di,),
M.li[drT),

0U»1.«.

MinjTiJ Minun;

HUndud Fooi ■

LtM«d,B«i^.

DlBO

uid Rupa-ukr ;

Clo»er^:luiir.

Rape-wkr i<id

auadud F^ :

PcDl

0-39

0-60

0-24

0-27

Vm%

0-25

0-51

0-29

0-2G

Pma

0-i6

0-41

0-31

0-33

PtD4

0-17

0-M

0-39

0-28

Pens

0-30

Po.6

0-45

Mean . .

0-27

0-48

0-31

Agna>lhtTa2 Chemutry — ShMp-Feeding and Mdmtrt. 61

Hntiui. IUttbk.

Suiu t.

8.U.. t.

aniM 3.

Sa>»l.

BpKUF«d:

apKl*IP«>]:

NmToII Whit..,
(tomib;

SpsrUlPimli

SUB<l»lP«>d:

SonilHd Food :
Clonr-cluir.

Eil«.M.It(4rT).

P«.l

0-71

1-45

1-03

0-79

p™i

0-60

1-28

1-06

0-76

Pni3

0-95

1-2S

I'll

1-00

Pen*

0-61

l-!4

1-09

0-83

Vmi

0-8S

Fea6

1-04

Xan , .

o-7a

1-30

1-07

0-88

Tablb 2. — Shoving the Consumption of Dry Organic Matter and
of Nitrogen to produce 100 Ihe. Increue in Live Weight, as indi-
cated \tj the results of the several series of Experiments witii Sheep.

DaT OsaANic Htrtm.

BiHI. I.

«»-■

Sinti g,

Stun 1.

9p«UlF«d!

SpeciilFosd:

Noriblk WbiM,

MlaenlMuinK;

8»ci.l Po-d:

Ollake, OUi,

8..d«.

Lliund, Buley,
SUnd«dF«*i

Rip*-uliauid

Bin Milt ^J,
3and»dF<:od:

p«l

817-23

1434-0

2288-23

949-93

Pfli2

786-25

1433 '5

1321-25

768 -28

Po.3

838-30

1S04-0

2371-25

850-98

Pm4

1015-00

1733-S

037-58

Pen 8

902-89

Pa<

008-48

Han . .

B64-2B

1521-23

1993-58

824-68

AffricuZtuTol Chemittry — Sheep- Faedinff and Matmre.

SpKlilPMd:
BvtdiL

SF.<dF«od:

ll>Ui
BUndHdFood:

Snins.

Ulnen] Uuu>;
Ditto u^

Dlttg
udIU|»ak*;

Ripe-sukiud

BtMIBt.

Uu(>ldt ■

Penl
I>«2

P»S
Pen4
Fcn»

1»*S9
1«*24
18-83
18-13

50-33
4S-90
37-28
42-19

39-00
29-50
80- 7a

18-84
17-61
19-19
SI -58
20-10
20 -75

Hmo . .

16-80

44-07

4808

19-87

S«>»1.

Bnml.

Botnl.

8nin4.

Speiital Vood :

SpwHiIFaad:

NorMkWhliH,
mnSTHJu*;

HS'^

OlkalM,Orti^

atud>idF«d:

8>«da.

Slnd«dF»d>
Clom-diiff.

Dliu
iuidltip»«k>;

F«nl

48.12

144-07

184

55-39

P<n3

se-91

lU-28

I06J

saoa

P«8:

81-98

lu-eo

212i

58-31

F«n4

86-74

130-43

64-96

INAS

S8-89

PM.8

47-70

H<u . .

4a-2Q

131-40

161-n

56- IS

Ayrieidtural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 63

Table, showiiw the Conmmiption of Food and the Increase of Animal
per Wed^ m each 100 lbs. live Weight,* as recorded bj various
observeis.

BSASTS.

Obd

Oxa

Oxn

Oxm

Oxn
Do.

6
30

DontioD
of

Wks. DtyB

5 0

4 0

22 0

9 0

10 5

Aathoiity.

H. S. Thomjon

H. S. Thornton

Hr. Portle

'••••<

J. H. Leigh •
Ditto . .

Food coitfoiiMd per Week to

each 100 Iba. liire welflit of

Animal.

Deauiptioii.

Qoaotitiea.

Liiueed . •

Bean-meal .
Straw & turnips

Oilcake • .
Bean-meal

Tumipt . •

Peas . • •

Linseed • •

Turnips 7 •

Oilcake . •

Turnips • •

lb*, oa.
0 1
2

1 13
1 13

• ■

1 13

0 8

64 0.

3 5
66 0

per Week
opoaeadi

100 Iba.
Uto weif ht

Iba. oa.

1 8

0*14
}0 134

2 12

* It is obvioot that, if description of animal, breed, age, length of continuance upon
the same Ibod, &c., have any influence upon the progress of tl^ animal, diese Tablet
of weekly connm^ion of food, and weeluy gain upon 100 lbs. of live weight, cannot
be takm at topplyuig factt in OToy retpect strictly comparable with each other. They
may, however, be ttlen at affording tome useful information as to ihe average result
of the feeding process, by which at the same time some judgment may be formed as to
how thr our own results apte in the main with those of other obeenrert. The method
sdopled in the construction of the Tables, with the view of bringing to 6ne ^uniform
■taDoard ictolta obtained under such dissimilarity of circumstance, has been to calcu-
late the Ibod consumed and the increate obtained upon the mean weight of the anunal,
at illustrated by the following example : —

live Dovnt fed at Rothamttod for 14 weekt, upon oatt and twedet, gained 131^ Ibt.
The wnghts wen :^

At commencement

558

Atconclution • • • • • 889*5

2)1247-5

Mean weight •

623 • 75 Ibt.

Tht total gain Ibr 14 weeks beiag 131^ Ibt., the weekly gain would be 9*4 lbs.
Thcniay^

623-75 9*4 : lOO

100

623*75)940*000(1*5 e 1 lb. 801.
623*75

316*250
311*875

vcddy gain upon 100 Ibt. Hrt

the food being ettimated in like manuOT.

64 AgricuUural Ckemirity — Shtiep-Feediry and Manure.

Ta&ue, ahowiog: the CoDsumption of Food and the Increase of Animal
per Week, for each 100 lbs. Live Weight, as recorded by variuus
obserrers.

"^f"

AoiauOi

Aothmily.

'^"°r^r;;;«"\';

lT>c»ue

AnUMl.

D«ripUon.

liTBWijhL

Cot»DldEwa

"'•s°y

RcT.A. Htiitahtf

lu. ™.

i' 3

Do. . .

a 0

Do. . . .

1 H

Lciceitcr 1

Umb< in

.....{

1.1 Week Swal
Slut tOilcak
Weelt.l Barley

e* . ,

)...

Lambi id
Field. .J

4 0

Do. . . .

Sweda only

1 m

Downi . . 1
Do*n . .

10 5
U 0

J. B. LawH .
Do. . . . {

Oil-cake .
SweUM .

5 31
72 0

1 91

Do. . .

14 0

Do. . . . ■[

Oiui . .

SiredM .

6 14
66 7

)i m

Do. . .

U 0

Do. ... 1

Clover Chaff

,\ii

\ I 13*

Do. . ,

14 0

Do. . . .

Swede* .

96 Si

1 II

Do. . .

19 0

Do. ... J

Oil-<»Le .
Clover Chaff

5 2
16 2J

} 1 3 ,

Do. . .

19 0

Do. ... J

Lloteed .
Ctuver Quff

S 1

14 1^

}' "

Do. . .

19 0

Do. ... J

lUrUy .
CloterChaJ

5 3i

la 9

I ■ >'

Do. . .

IB 0

Do. ... j

M*ll . .
Clorer Chaff

i 161

15 IU(

1 OIH

Do. . .

23 2

DO. . . .

I 0(

Do. . .

9 0

Do. ... ]

Clover Cbaff

Swedn .

i 81
91 121

[ 1 SI

Do. . .

a 0

Do. . . .J

Clovec Chaff
Sotdet .

4 2

87 4

[l 6)

'Do. . .

9 0

Do. ... j

Clover Chaff
SiredH .

4 2!

1 ' "

Sh..p . .

16 0

Motion . . j

Gall . .

Swede! .

S 13

lOU 0

[ 1 3

D* . .

16 0

Do. ... f
Do. ... 1

Oaw . .

Swedca .

9 15

74 0

[l 1

Do. . .

16 0

3 14

6a 0

] * '

Do. • .

16 0

Do. . . . {

Oato . .

Swede* .

6 U

47 0

1 I B

Agricalturai Chemittry — Sheep- Feeding and Momtte, 65

IkutfiUvi)

SiuDbcr

ADtboHV.

AjiUuuL

,Iiicn»

IjitauL

Ilv=-.1#.L

Sb«p . .

16 0

Morton - - • {

OslB . . .

Swedei . .

4S 0

a^Ld-j

lal

LordKadoor .

Swede*

a a

10 9

},,

$(«<hd(nni .

laj

-■ 1

Swede*

12 fi
180 0

j" i»4

Hrif-ted* .

...,.{

Sved»

9 3

138 0

|..

Cwmld .

lai

- 1

Swedes

4 8

8 13

IM 0

L«wa .

18 0

Do. . . .

Grw.

. .1

18 0

Do. . . .

Do.

1 u

llalf-4)Tf<b .

IB 0

Do. . . .

Do.

1 41

OMwold .

18 0

Do. . .

Do.

0 m

iMoatet .

IS 0

- ■ (

Hay
Swedes

U 0
174 0

)-.

Soitbdowii.

D.. ..(

Sw^

10 14
175 0

}■"

IUf-te«d> .

\i 0

P.. . . -{

Haj

11 11

180 0

)»3

On-cOd .

12 0

DO. . .j

Hay

10 0

178 0

) 1 1»1

Umb. .1

17 0

Mr. Kt. Woods

Oilcake . .
Barley. , .
Turalpi . .

HiK-bwU .

IT 0

- --I

Oilcake ,

Turnips . .

ad Kb,

1 ^

10 «

J. B. Lawes . {

liarley, dry .

Muigotda. .

S 0

)i c^

Do. . .

10 u

0.. . .(

Barley, eMeped
Mangolds. .

4 12

90 B

) 1 "i

Do, . .

10 0

MaH.dnr. .

.'. l>

}■ '>

So. . .

- - ■ 1

Malt, itwped
Maogold." .

,r^'

}' "

Do. . .

10 0

D.. . . (

Man^S; "

,:'."

), .

Do. . .

D.. .j

Oilcak
Maiigoi

Ai'.

i""

[)'■'

66 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeding and Manure.

The reader of the foregoing pages will at once discern, that the
results as thus far detailed are not sdone fitted for direct application
to those general questions which in our introductory remarks we
have stated it to be the object of this investigation to elucidate ; it
being obviously essential to such purpose, that the collateral in-
jTormation as to the composition of the increase^ and of the manurCy
should also be before us. Some few observations, however, upon
the Tabulated Summary which has been given, as well as upon
the collected results of other experimenters by the side of our
own, might with advantage have been offered in this place, had our
time and space permitted it. The omission is, however, perhaps
the less to be regretted, since the remarks which have been made in
the course of the detailed examination of the results, may probably
serve in the mean time, sufficiently to guide the observations of
the intelligent reader to some of the chief points of interest in
these concluding Tables ; whilst, in re-opening the subject in a
future communication, a suitable opportunity will occur for pass-
ing in review the facts already recorded, which, indeed, may now
be accomplished with less fear of undesirable repetition. We pro-
pose, then, when we next take up this subject, first to recall
attention to the facts of more prominent import which have thus
far been brought forward, relating to the consumption of food or
its constituents^ and to the increase in gross live weiglU obtained;
then to consider in detail, first the question of the composition of
increase^ and secondly that of the manure produced— ^Sich in rela-
tion to the general and special characters of the foods employed ;
and, this being accomplished, we shall be prepared to direct
attention to the more important bearings of the results, especially
in relation to the characters and composition of manuring sul>-
stances generally.

Hothamstedy June, 1849.

Affrieuhural OhemUtry — Slieep-Feedbig and Manure. 67

TABULAR APPENDIX IN 1856, TO

Table showing the Consumption of Food and the Inorease of Anunal, per

"Week, for each lOQlbs. Live Weight, as recorded by various observers."

-^See pp. 63-5.)

BEASTS.

rords

WKQB

(Mf ..

locks

tto

}

tto

Diiimtioil

of
Experi-
ment.

8 5

8 1.

8 1

5 L

5 0

14 2

An'tliorlty.

Dake of Bedford

Avenge Food ooDsomed per Week to each
100 lbs. live weight of Animal.

Description.

Quantities.

Dake of Bedford

Duke of Bedford

Ck>l. McDoaall

Col. McDoaall

Col. McDouaU

(OUcake
< Clover hay
[Swedes

' ^ ^ , (Linseed-meal (2 pts.)
<^^ ^Bean do. (I pt.)

oompoimd

Clover hay
.Swedes

Barley do (2 pts.)

^ ^ ^ jOilcake .. j ^„,,

C«*«>^ Bean-meal ^^

^P°^ (Barley do. j P^'

ICloverhay

iSwedes

(Linseed-meal ) i
Bean do. ^^

Barley do. j P»^

ICloverhay

[Swedes

•^■^ji^eydo. \v*^

ICloverhay

^Swedes

1 Oilcake . . ) ^„,
Bean-meal ^"f^
Barley do. f P*^-

Clover hay

.Swedes

! Bean-meal
Straw ..
Mangolds

• • • •

Bean-meal ..
Straw .. ..
White carrots

lbs. OS.

3 11
6 0|
21 11

3 0

5 10|
22 4

2 7}

9 15|
30 15

2 8

10 0
30 8

2 9|

9 4
33 15

2 5)

9 1
24 4

2 lOi

3 7
57 12

2 9^

3 5}
72 0

vpoa

100 lbs.

litn

lbs. OS.

0 11

1 Of

1 71

I 3

^0 13|

1 4f

1 1^

(Bean-meal I 2

./straw \ ^

//Swedes \^

I If

\ \\

Apricuitural ChemUtrt/ — Sheep-feeding and Mamtn.

BE ASTS— ewd fiui^ ',

.^y,»

I>iinitl(ni
Eipni-

ADIborttj,

100 Jl«. UiD welgl.l of Anlmm.

Jnlnal.

QuuBtt

Wta-Pnyi.

11* a.

"tS. 1

n a

Col. HcDoDtJl

(Bean-niMl

Straw

ISwedes

a 10

3 6
W II

Ditto

U 3

Col. MoDomdi

Straw

Swede*

8 l«
71 U

Ktto

14 i

Col. McDonall

™. rt»»l 1 iHd {Straw .. ..
I>"a«y [Swedes

3 10

56 11

Ditto

U S

Col. McDonall

cut.u,w:ir™i. Straw .. ..
jp«flw [Swedi*

6 5

7 %
as u

Ditto

Col. MoDoooll

)™i.i™*i if«J Straw .. ..

1 3
5 11

&6 S

Ditl..

Col.McDowUl

jOat-«raw (4ptt.)

Whenldo (Ido.)

Swedes

S8 0

Ditto

u a

C(^.HcDoaall

[t^r'V. :. :. :. :.

4 II

86 9

Ditto

u a

Col. HoDotun

Straw

1 1
1 5
3 t

79 11

S 0
3 9

80 1

Ditto

14 a

Col. McDou»ll

OUcake

Straw

Swedw

Ditto

14 a

Col. MoDonaU

1 [Oilcake ..

MUlon {Bean-meal ..

Straw

Swede*

0 lU
0 IS
84 8

16 9

CoLHcDmiaU

fUUB hull of time „
of ,a%« cookM Straw ., ..
f^, '™« « Swede. ..

a 9

3 13
5S S

Ditto

iG i

Col. McDoiull

OtlMt half uT UOH iHean-in™!
(■t4lli) |9wedee

a 10

3 19

as la

Chtnattry — Sheepfeeding a
BEASTS— MHliNucd.

DsmlnD

le 3

Col. McDoiuU
Col. McDoDixll
A, TempUWn
A. Templelon
&. TempletoQ
A. Teroplrtoo

Hon.Capt. Grej
Hon.Capt.Grej
Hon. C»pt, Grey
Hon.Capt.Gtey
Bon. Capt. Grey

jUtlBf li»lf Df Uni* |BeBn-meal ..
[ (HfatdH or bMDmelii) (oweaei

[uiM ts d.y. tbt (Bem-meri -.

mi] and put gf (Strav .. ..
I .irmwniokol (Swede* (fresh)

|ut.« <s i,jt u,.. (Bean-meal ..

Di«il una psrt ot {Straw .,
I •U.wcookal (Swede* (Stored)

Isiwdis grown «llh (Hay .,
mmysM BUDuie jOal-straw
I wd gouo (Swedes

I ' (Swedes

\s-riet BTOwn with (Hay ..
tamftti Human jOat-strsw
'udboDH (Swedes

Oilcake

Bt&n-meal

Clover

[Oilcake

BcsD-nieftl

[Oilcake

Bean-meal

ItKIcake

Beao-ioeBl

I Turnips

[Oilcake

(Beao'ineal

(Tornips

?.!f!

0 13}
jo 141

5 '3 1

0 Bt I

39 B
(M

1 6i I
Bl 10

1 M I

0 81

Agna^nral Chemistry — S/ieep-Feedinff and Mantm.

BEASTS-conimwd.

ATBuge Piod toamXtii fa Wnk lo

-,/ / /

Hon. OpL Qitj
Hon. Capt. Gre;
Hon, Capt. Grey
Hon. Gmt. Grey
Hod. Capt. Gcey
Hon. Capt. Grej
Hon. Capt. Grey
Hon. Capt. Grey
Hon. Capt. Gray
Hod. Capt. Grey
Hod. Capt Grej
Hon. Capt. Gray
Hon. Oapt. Grey

(OUcake
(Bean-meal .
{Toniip*

lOilcako

JBtan-meal .
|Turnip>

jOileake

< Benii-nieal .

( Turnips

[OJleake
Bean-meal .

jOilca^ . , . .
[Bean-meal ,:
iTurnipi

(Oilcake . . . .

Beao-mcal ..

rOilcake .. ..
I Bcan'roeal ■ .

[Clorer (IC veeki)

(Oikake .. ..

Bean-meal ..
iTomipi .. ..

[Oilcake .. ..
Bean-meal ..
Turnips
Qover (le weeki]

tOileriu .. ..
Be«D-mcal ..

[Turnip*

{Oiloakc

BeuQ-meal .
'Turnips

oa 14

0 14
oisi

69 4

1 1

0 IS

71 la

OlM
0 13|

0 1^

0 154

rs!

J^riaUlimU Cbemiitry—Sh^Fee^ and Mtamrt.

» abowiDg* the ConsumptioD of Food and tb« lucroaw of Aaimal, per Wed^
fiw each 100 Um. Lire We^ht, as recorded by Tarioui obwrven.

!*»*' I

26 0

DMcTlpUaa.

jOikalce

{Sredei
jOUcske

(Biredel

{Oilcake
(Clover-hay

I Oilcake
^CloTer.h»y
j Swedes

jSwislei

jOilcako
jHay-cbiff .

(Maiigoldi .

5 4i
4 11* '
71 10

9 o|

5 5t j
74 11 '

4 13

4 84
67 13

:!!tl

loiQutn-

13 a

31 S

IOilcnke
Hay and aorer-chiff ..
Norfolk White* or Siredea

(Oilcake

[Hiy-cliB£F

iManBoldi

lOilcake

\ Hay aaci Clover-cbalf
JHorfolk WUtw or &i(«d«

3 ia| '

70 0 I

72 JffrieuUaral Chsmittry—Slmp-Fteding and Manure.

SHEEP— coneinnMl.

welKbt ol AnlDsnI.

Cotiiroldi . .
(Ftd tin Cbriat-

(Fal 1111 ChlUl-

CFottmOBWl-

14 4
34 4

;CBke or Com
Hij-chatr ..

MiDgoldi ..

!Cak«orCom ..
Hay or Clover-chaff , .
Turnips or Svede* ..

I Swedes or Maagoldi
Oilcake

! Oilcake
Haj-cbeff
Tnrnips or Swedes ..

IOilcakp
HBy-chaff
SwetleB or Mangold*

lOilcake

H»j-chaff

'Timiip« or Swede*

fOUcake

Hay-chaff

[Sw^es or Mangold*

Oilcake .. ,,

Hov-ehaff ., ..
Turnips or Swedes

ilOjl

4 13 I
J Hi. f

jtffriciiltaral ChemiHry — ^wep-Fteding and Aftutun. 73

TiBLE showing the Connunption of Food and the iDcrease of Animal per Week,
for each tOO lbs. Live Weight, as recorded by various obeervers.

'-T' i^T'

U S

ht 7
Lot 8
Lot >
Lot to

iM II

Lot 11

(iDdlaD U

J. B. LawM ..
J. B. lAwea ..
J. B. Uvei ..

Indifln Meal (ad lib.)

IBeaa Metd
" '■ (Lentil do.

Indian Meal 0»i f<'6.j ■-

fuutan .. .. iBcan Meal

1 )Tj>ntil dn

f„ jltoau Me«J
ladioii Meal (<id lih.) . .
Bnui do.

3 71'
3 7i
G 15 I

18 H,

74 AgrieaUural Chemistry — Sheep-Feeing and Manure.

PIGS— <»ntmfi€d.

DMcriptioii
Animal.

SEEIB8 2.

Lot 1

Lot 8

Lot 4

Lot 5

Lot 6

Lot 7

Lot 8

Lot 9

Lot 10

Lot 11

Lot 12

Number

of
AnimalB

Duratioii

of
Experi-
ment

Wk8.Da7B.
8 0

8 0

AnthOTity.

8 0

3 8 0

J. B. Lawes •.

J. B. Lawes ..

J. B. Lawes . .

J. B. Lawes ..

J. B. Lawes .

J. B. Lawes . ,

J. B. Lawes .,

J. B. Lawes .

Avenge Food oonsmned per week to each
100 lbs. live weic^t of Animal.

Deecription.

iLMi ^ i' jT-KNJBean Meal .. ..
Mixture («IK&.)|Len^il^^^ .. ..

[Barley Meal

L,._^ , j»^>lBeanMeal ..
Mixture (odKbOJLeatil do. ..

Bran

^. ^ r ..^JBeanMeal
Mixture/ocJ K&OJLentil do.

. • . •

Barley Meal
Bran

M. *. ^ J to. J B*^^ Meal .. ..
MIxture(adKb.)|Le^^d^

Barley Meal (od /t&.)

(Mixture.. .. [^.}^^ " "
< \Lentil do

(Barley Meal (a<i/t6.)

Quantitiet.

(Bran

(Barley Meal (at/ lib.)

Mixture

(

JBran

(Barley Meal {ad lib,)

(Bean Meal
\ Lentil do.

• . • •

I Bran .. (1 pt.)
Barley Meal (2 pts.)
Bean^ do. (l| „ ^
Lentil do. (l) „ ;

Mixture(adifl,.)fS!!Sl.M' 1 ^oJ^^A
■' (Lentil do. (1* »» )

!Bran •• (1 pt.)
Bean Meal (1 ,,
Lentil do. (l "
Barley do. (3 pts.^

(Barley do. (3 pts.)

lbs. OK.

12 7 1
12 7 /

11*

15f

61)

34 9i

5 3

20 7||

iMlkii

SIS

11,

5 81)

11 Of

8 4i

8 4|j

5 14
11 Uf
8 12i|
8 12i;

5 7

6 i

51(4

6 2

4 9

lOl

5 9^
5 9i
5 9
16 12

Agricallural Chtmiitrg — Sheep-Feeding and Manure. 75

PIGS— <in<»>uAl

I 8 0 i J. B. UvM .

,10 0 ' J. B. LiLwc« .

I 10 0 J. B. Loves .

3 10 0 1 J. B. Lawes .

3 ' II) tl r J, [1. Law™

I I 1^ 0 I J. B. Lair«s .

|Cod Pi»h (dried)

ilDiiion Me&l .,
Br«n

ICodFish(drieil)idm

{sil«ort-fquiJ (Bran .. ..
i^ad lib. f Indian Ucftl ~-

;C(k1 Fiah (dried)

4 1311, 11* c

111'"

.;it)j=

■!*

* " 1

13 15 \l I
U IS Jl

•I

SI nil «

>; fi '

{Lentil Mvol

(Bran

ISugar (Pungng) ad lib. .

|L«Dtil Meal ..
IStarah (lui lib.)

Lentil Ueal .. ..

Sugar (Penang) iid li'i.
Starch . . ilo.

3 U 16

! 11 Oil

I 16 2 1]

7 0 li

i Lentil Meal . .
Bran
Sng»r (Penang)

'(Whales' Flesh
! I Barley Meal . .
IjPollBTd .. ..

. y)l

:;?(■

ivi^i

8 illl

5S»

76 Agricultural Chemistry — Sheep-Feedinff and Manure.

PIGS— oonWmittf.

Deacriptton
Animal.

Number
of

Duration

of
Experi-
ment.

Wk8.f)ayB.
12 0

Authority.

MT!* Andrews
(Comber).

12 0

M*^ Andrews
(Comber).

J. B. Lawes ..

Average Food consumed per week to each
100 Iba. live weight of AnimaL

Description.

Boiled .. . /Bean Meal
\Bran

Steamed.. .. /^ancolds
\ Swedes ..

• . • <

(Bean Meal
Bran
Manffolds
Swedes ..

Quantities.

Barley Meal Oh/ /t&.) ! 34 6

END OF TABULAE APPENDIX.

RotJiamsted, Jane^ I85(i.

LfiSDos : j>rii?rrED ry w. cix>wk« and sons, stamfori* stueet,

AND CnAnreG CROW.

REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS

ON THE

COMPARATIVE FATTENING QUALITIES

OK DIFFERENT

BREEDS OF SHEEP.

BY J, B. LAWES,

ROTHAMSTED, HERTS.

LONDON :
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES k SONS, STAMFORD STRtlKT.

1852.
RK-PKINTED BY DUNN & CHIDGEY, 155-57, KINGSLAND H<>AD.

1«8S.

FROM THE
JOURNAL OF THK ROYAIi AORlCrLTrRAL HOCIKTY OF ENGIANI>.

VOL. XIT., PART II.

COMPARATIVE

FATTENING QUALITIES OF SHEEP,

Hampshire and Sttssex Dowm.

It is obvious that wherever that system of farming prevails
which is characterised by an extensive g^o^vth of root crops, and
the consumption of a large quantity of what is termed " artificial
food" by stock, a very different character of sheep ^nll be in
request from that which is adapted to roam over large tracts of
scanty herbage. In the latter case that description of animal is
valud most which is best able to exist with a scarcity of food,
the result of which is to lessen the tendency to earlt/ matunty ;
Md although this method of feeding will probably always be
found the most advantageous one in some localities, yet there
cwmot be a doubt that, in the course of agricultural progress, a
tendency to early maturity, or the aptitude to increase rapidly
^Pon a liberal supply of food, is a quality which is increasingly
*^Qght after by farmers.

Without, then, in the least degree depreciating the importance
J^ other qualities than that of rapid faUeniiuf^ it is assimied that a
«iowledge as to which breed of sheep mil give the greatest in-
^j^^ upon a given quantity of food, and within a given time,
^nrinff the period of fattening, is at least a great desideratum ;
^^ it was therefore determined to undertake some careful expe-
^ents in reference to this point, with the breeds of most im-
portance in this country. Accordingly, a comparative trial has
^^^ been made between the Hampshire and Sussex Downs, the
•^Qlts of which are given in the present paper ; a similar experi-
?^t is now in progress between the Cotswold and New Oxford
p^ ; and it is proposed in the following year to undertake the
^'JJpolnshire and Leicestershire breeds.

.^he county of Sussex has long been famed for its breed of

*J.^P known by the name of Stissex DaicUy which, by the miited

^o**t5< of individuals whose names are familiar to all who are

^^'^Tsant with the progress of agriculture in Great Britain, have

4 Comparative Fattenuuj Qiudities of Sheep.

attained a higli degree of perfection. Indeed, it may almost be
said that they have the character of possessing such a combination
of useful qualities as is scarcely to be found in any other breed
of sheep, imiting, as they do, quality of mutton with quality of
wool, a good constitution, and the capability of travelling long
distances for their food, and maintaining their condition where
many other breeds would starve.

A little further west another description of sheep prevails, and
is distinguished as the Hampshire Down. Although this iDreed
partakes of many of the characters of the Sussex Down — and
both may probably have sprung from one common origin — ^yet it
nevertheless possesses some clearly distinctive qualities. Thus,
the delicate head, small legs, and symmetrical proportions of the
well-bred Sussex sheep are not to be found in the Hampshire ;
but in the place of these we find a larger frame and hea\ier weight,
both of carcass and of wool, though wath slightly diminished
q^uality in each ; and the animal, which owing to its increased,
size sells for a liigher price when fat, is said to possess more of
the tendency to early maturity than the Sussex sheep.

A difference of ten or twelve shillings per head on the fat
animal is indeed at first sight evidence of a very tangible kind in
favour of the Hampshire sheep ; but the question of the cost of
producing this increased value is in fact a somewhat complicated
one. An accurate solution of it is, however, absolutely essential
before w^e can fairly decide upon the comparative profitableness
of different breeds, varying thus in weight and price. To this
end it is obviously necessary to determine the quantity of food
consumed in each case to produce a given amount of increase, and
the money value of such increase. It is as a contribution to
this important subject that the account of the experiments already
made with the Sussex and Hampshire Downs is now presented
to the reader ; and that he may be able to form his own conclusion?
res])ecting them, the results will be given in full detail.

For the purposes of the experiment fifty Hampshire wether
lambs were carefully selected at Overton fair in July, 1850, by a
friend to whom the object in view had been communicated, and
the animals arrived at Rothamsted early in August.

The selection of fifty Sussex lambs was at first kindly under-
taken by Mr. Thomas Ellman, who intended to procure them at
Lewes fair in September ; but having been erroneously informed
that some had been already purchased, he did not do so, and
eventually fifty Sussex wether lambs were selected from the flock
of Mr. H. Sadler, of Mid Lavant. These were forwarded to
London by railway, and they reached the farm from thence on
the 23rd of October.

Up to this time the Hampshires had been fed upon pasture
merely. Both lots were now provided with a portion of white tur-

Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep. 5

nips tb^o^^l down to them in the pasture ; and they were thus kept
until the exact experiment was commenced.

k& the soil on the farm at Rothamsted is heavy, and not well
adapted to carry stock in winter, it was decided that the experi-
ment should be made under cover. Accordingly, on November
7th, the whole of the animals having been previously weighed
and marked on that day, 4() of the more uniform of each breed
were placed side by side upon rafters in a long shed. The ten
ranaining of each were sent into the field with the rest of the
fattening flock.

With regard to the selection of the sheep as above described, it
may be remarked that many farmers and sheep-breeders examined
them during the progress of the experiment, and expressed them-
selves fully satisfied with the character and quality of ])oth the
lots, but more especially with the Sussex sheep, which were
particularly pure and uniform.

The (In/ foods selected were oil-cake and cJorer rh/tff ; and
these were given to the two lots respectively in fixed quantity
exactly apportioned to the average weight of the animals. Thus
the 40 Hampshires, whose average weight was 113f ll)s., had
40 lbs. of oil-cake and 40 lbs. of clover chaff per day ; or 1 lb. of
each of the two foods per head per day. But the 40 Sussex
sheep, whose average weight was only 88 lbs., had 32 lbs. of oil-
cake and 32 lbs. of clover per day ; or rather more than | lb. of
each food per head per day.

Swedes were also given to both lots, as many as the animals
chose to eat, but from stocks which had been previously
weighed.

During the progress of the experiment the animals were
sighed every 4 weeks, and always, as nearly as possible, at the
same period of the day, the hour chosen being from 10 to 12 a.m.,
^fore the second feed in the day, as it was considered that at that
time the weights would probably be less affected by irregularity
m the contents of the stomachs and intestines of the animals than
at any other.

In Tables I. and II., which follow, are given : —

The weight of each sheep when put up, Nov. 7th, 1850.

The increase of each animal between each period of weighing,
^d the weight of wool, shorn March 27th, 1851.

The total increase of each animal (inclusive of wool).

Their final weights, both inclusive and exclusive of wool.

Also, in the 12th column of each Table, the average weekly

gain of each animal ; and at the foot of the Tables the total gain

of the 40 sheep between each period of weighing, and the average

'^klv gain, &c., per head of the 40 animals during the same

period.

Comparative Fattenintf Qitalities oj iSheep.

fflf

lllll

3^"^iTrt»i'=!ofJi w— a* Jjx'^'^^ccx'J^'jA'g jiii'ggig'^'«»^^'2g *gg

IWA'

I'tn

ji ■

'' = :: = = ZSHl:^££saKKS£!;£S^SRE;^SS&SS3'

Cos^parative Fattening Qmtitug of Sheep.

■^ ^^^^sS ft ^72*5 S i 5 M -5 S 5 ^^^«^3'^»**^S » ^3S^* ^! ^^^

liS*'l

M«

1 5T5-i'arjr..3r5r7» vj'g'-i.'s.'f t- rs-ffvs:

i i-.S-i'X'X.Sml'ST^VXTSTS^fffSZ-

imSSSSSSSns?S-Ji'^SaSSSS:^SSi^SSSiSSStSSl^-±

fiSSSSSSRKSS^fSRSS^R^^i^S

\VV

8 Comparative Fafteninf/ Qiialifie.s of Sheep,

In a former paper on Sheep-feeding, in this Journal, we par-
ticularly directed attention to the great variation in the rate of
increase of the same anunal at different periods, and also of dif-
ferent animals on the same food, however carefully selected with
regard to quahty and uniformity. It is, jjerhaps, seldom that
animals have Ixien drawn for purposes of experiment with more
care than in the instances of which the foregoing tables record
the results, yet we liave scarcely a sheep in either breed wliich does
not give t^^^ce, thrice, or more times as great an increase in gross
live weight at one period, as at another of equal length ; whilst,
taking the entire pericxl of the experiment, we have nearly double
the increase with some animals as with others by their side, and
having ostensibly the same description and cjualities of food
pn)vided.

The variation in the apparent rate of gain of the same animal
at different times, is largely due to the difference in the amounts of
the matters of the food retained within the animal at the different
times of weighing, and to obviate error from this cause we liave
only to extend our experiments over a sufficient length of time,
and to Ixi careful, as far as possible, always t<.> weigh the animals
at the same period of the day, and under similar circumstances as
regards their hours of feeding.

With respect to the difference of result shown by different
animals, having professedly the same allowance of f(H)a, much of
it is doubtless due to distinct constitutional tendency to fatten or
otherwise ; yet in some cases it no doubt depends upon a real
difference in the food consumed by individual animals, for it is
impossible to secure for each its due share of the several foods
supplied ; and wherever there are many animals kept and fed
together, there are always some who exercise a kind of mastery
over the rest, and if they do not eat more food altogether than is
allotted to them, they will at least take more of the best of it than
is their share, and thus reduce the fair allowance to all the rest.
By this cause, indeed, it is not improbable that the proper feeding
and increase of some animals well adapted for it may be pre-
vented ; though in so far as these differences are really due to the
(luantities of food consumed l)y different individuals, it is obvious
that the tnie relation of food to increase ^^^ll l)e less misstated bv
the gross numerical results of feeding exiK?riments, than would
l)e the case were the irregularities entirely owing to varying con-
stitutional capabilities of the different animals to grow or fatten
upon the same food.

But whatever be the causes of these variations, the figures in
the bibles show that, notwitlistanding the careful selection of the
animals, we have among the Hampshire sheep a difference in
their average weekly gain of from about 8J ll>s. to little more

Comparative FatteuiiKj Qualities of Slieep. 9

^Q 2 Ihs. ; and among the forty Sussex sheep, of from little more
than 2i Ihs. to less than 1^ Ihs. Indeed, the tenor of all pub-
lished results on feeding, seems to show tliat these fluctuations
and variations are the rule and not the exception ; and the fact
of them, therefore, should lead us to great caution in drawing
nice conclusions from experiments made ^vith but a small numlxir
of animals, and extending only over a short period of time. AVe
think, however, that the general results of experiments with forty
sheep in each lot, and carried on for a period of 26 weeks, cannot
he considered as open to serious c>bjection on account of these
irr^larities.

With these remarks as to the degree of reliance which we
helieve our results may fairly claim, httle further comment is
neeessanr upon these tables of mere detail. But we would suggest
in passfng — ^besides a glance down and across the columns to
sbw the fluctuations alluded to — an inspection of the columns
showing the quantities of wool obtained from each sheep of
the two breeds respectively ; also, that the reader should caiTy
his eye down the column No. 12 of each of the tables, shovnng
the average treMy (jaia of earli animal^ and along the bottom
Knes, wherein are given the average weekly yain i^er head of the
forty sheep during the several— chiefly monthly — periods of the
experiment. He will thus, by an easy view, gather a pretty clear
conception of the average rates of gain of the two breeds res-
pectively.

In the six following tables are given, for the two lots of sheep
respectively : —

In Table III., the total food consumed, and total increase
produced, between each weighing.

In Table IV., the quantities of food consumed to produce
loo lbs, ifurease in live weight.

In Table V., the food consumed per h^id, |xjr week.

In Table yi., the food consumed per 100 lbs, live tceiyht, per
week.

In Table VII., the average increase in weight per head, per week.

And in Table VIII., the average increase per 100 lbs. live
weighty per week.

Comparative Fatteiiiwj Qualities of Sh^ep.

Table III.

Showing the Description and Quantities of Food consumed, and of Increase prodnced, I
lot of Sheep, between each interval of weighing ; chiefly monthly periods.

(Quantities given in Pounds.)

Periods.

Length

of
Time.

Oilcake.

Clover Hay.

Swedes.

Inere
Llvel

Hamp-
shire.

Sussex.

Hamp-
Hhln>.

Sussex.

Hamp-
shire.

Sussex.

Hamp-
shireu

Between Nov. 7 and Dec. 6
., Dec. 5 ., Jan. 2
Jan. 2 „ Jan. 30
Jan. 30 „ Fob. 27
Feb. 27 ., Mar.27
Mar.27 „ Apr. 24
Apr. 24 „ May 8

Weeks.
2

lbs.
1120
1120
1120
1120
1120
1680

840

lbs-
868
868
868
868
868
1288
644

lbs.
1120
1120
1120
1120
1120
1120

660

lbs.
868
868
868
868
868
1120
660

lbs.
14,01)0
18,693
16.476
18.422
18.278
21.616
8,982

lbs.
11.084
10,772
11.186
12.133
12,312
15,820
7,640

Ibai

S8S

44f

4<S|

S8B

291

Total Food and Increase of )
40 Sheep in 26 weeks . )

8120

6272

7280

6020

110.467

80,897

37841

Average food conBnnie<l )
and increase produced >
by 40 Sheep in 4 weeks)

• •

1249

965

1120

926

16,995

12,445

428

Table IV.

Showing the Quantities of Food consumed during each period, to produce 100 lbs. I

in live weight, by each lot of Sheep.

(Quantities given in Pounds and Ounces.)

Periods.

Length
Time.

OUcake.

Clover H«y.

Bwedi

Hampshire.^

Sussex.

Hampshire.

Sussex.

Hampahliv.

Between Nov. 7 and Dec. 5
Dec. 6 „ Jan. 2
Jan. 2 ., Jan. 8<)
Jan. 30 ,. Feb. 27
Feb. 27 „ Mar.27
Mar.27 „ Apr. 24
Apr. 24 „ May 8

Weeks.
2

lbs. oz.
261 1
290 15
293 3
251 11
241 8
433 0
286 11

lbs. oz.
215 6
821 8
409 6
264 6
449 12
2K8 15
250 9

lbs. oz.
261 1
290 15
293 8
251 11
241 8
288 11
191 2

lb& oz.
215 6
821 8
409 6
264 6
449 12
261 2
217 14

Iba.
3263
35M
4061
4140
1941
5571
8061

Average for the entire period )
of the Experiment . . )

294 0

314 4

259 12

304 3

3941

Comparative Fattening Qualities of She^p,

Table V.

ming the ftTerage Weekly Consamption of Food per Head, daring each period of the

Experiment.

(Qoantities given in Pounds and Oanoes.)

P«;riod9.

Length
Time.

Oilcake.

Clover Hay.

Swedes.

Hampshire.

Sussex.

Hampshire.

Sussex.

Hampshire.

Sussex.

wen Nov. 7 and Dec 6
Dec S „ Jan. 2
Jan. 2 .. Jan. 30
Jan. 30 „ Feb. 27

, Feb. 21 ., Mar.27
Mar. 27 .. Apr.?4
Apr. 24 .. May 8

Weeks.

Ibd.

lOA
loj

lbs. oz.
5 7

5 7

6 7
5 7
5 7
8 0
8 0

lbs.

lbs. oz.
5 7

5 7

6 7
6 7

6 7

7 0
7 0

lbs OS.

87 8

8S 9

96 12

116 2

114 4

135 2

112 4

lbs OS.
69 0
67 S
69 IS

76 0

77 0
98 IS
96 8

nmilorthe enUre period
ttebperunent . . .

6 3

6 14

106 10

79 1

Table VI.

ring the Average Weekly Consamption of Food j;*^ 100 /**. lire Weight of Animal,

daring eaoh period of the Experiment.

(Qoantities given in Poands and Oances.)

Perloda.

reen Nov. 7 and Dec 6

Dec S ,. Jan. 2

Jan. 2 ., Jan.su

Jan. 10 ^ Feb. 27

Feb. 27 „ Mar.27

Mar.27 ,. Apr. 24

Apr. 24 ., May 8

^nat lor ihe entire period \
"Helxpertment . . .J

Length
Time.

WGi-ks.

OUcake.

Hampshire.

lbs. oz.
6
5

6 1

4 lU

4 7
6 2i

5 13f

Sussex.

Clover Hay.

Hampshire.

Its. oz.
6
6

4 Hi
4 7
4
3

lit

4 12f

Sussex.

lbs. 07..
6 13J
6
5

4
4
6
6

•I

12
8
7

Swedcc

Hampshire.

lbs. oz.

73 10^
66 5f

69 13
77 5i
71 4|

70 1
62 9\

Sussex.

68 1

Table VII.

Showing the Average Weekly Increase per Head, during each period of the

Experiment.

(Quantities given in Pounds and Ounces.)

Periods.

Between Not.
Dec
Jan.
Jan.
Ftob.
Mar.

7 and

» n

27
27

•*

Apr. 24

Dec S
Jan. 2
Jan. SO
Feb. 27
Mar.27
Apr. 24
May 8

Avenge for the entire period )
of the Izperlment . . .)

Length
Time.

Weeks.

Hampshire.

lbs. oz.
2 11
2
2
2
2
2
3

124
14

2 12

Sussex.

lbs. oz.
2 8f

1 11

1 S

2 1>I

1 t\

2 121

3 Sl

2 If

Comparatlvf* Fattening Qualities of Sluiep,

Table VIII.

Showing the Average Weekly Im^reane per 100 lbs, lire Weighty during each

period of the Experiment.

(Quantities given in Pounds and Oances.)

Periods..

Between Nov. 7 and Dec. 5

< 1
» »

Dec 5
Jan. 3
Jan. 3U
Feb. 27
Mar. 37
Apr. 24

., Jan. 2

„ Jan. 30

„ Ft^b. 27

„ Mar. 27

„ Apr. 24

.. May 8

Ayerage for the entire period )
of the Experiment . . • )

Length

of
Time.

Weeks.

Ilampshlro.

lbs. oz.
2 4
1
1
1
1
1
2

14
13

1 14

Sussex.

1 10}

Note. — It may aid the reader in gaining a clearer idea of the plan and
object of Tables IV., VI., and VIII., and assist in his understanding of their
results, if the following illustration of the mode in which they are obtained
be added.

In Table IV., and during the first period of 4 weeks, between NoyemberTth
and December 5th, it will be S9en that the Hampshire sheep are said to con-
sume 261 lbs. 1 oz. of oil -cake, 261 lbs. 1 os. of clover-hay, and 3263 Ibe. of
swedes, to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight. Now, in Table III. it will
be found that during the same period there were consumed 1120 lbs. of oil-
cake, and that the increase obtained amounted to 429 lbs. Then we say —

Increase. Oilcake. lbs.

As 429 : 1120 : : 100 i 261
100

429) 112000 ( 261 lbs. of oil-cake consumed to produce
858 100 lbs. of increase in live weight.

2620
2574

460
429

lbs.

3263 of swedes consumed to produce 100 lbs.

The 261 lbs. 1 oz. of clover-hay is obtained in the same way, thus :«-
Incroaae. Clover. lbs.

As 429 : 1120 :: 100 : 261 of clover consumed to produce 100 lbs. of
increase in live weight.

And so with the swedes : —

Increase. Swedes.

As 429 : 14,000 : : 100
of increase in live weight.

In the same way like results are obtained for all the other periods.

In Table VI. we find that the Hampshire sheep during the first period,
between November 7th and December 5th, are said to consume weekly 5 Ibe.
14^ oz. of oil-cake, 5 lbs. 14| oz. of clover-hay, and 73 lbs. \0\ oz. of swedes,
for every 100 lbs. of their weight during the same period. To determine thtf
weight of the forty Hampshire sheep during this first period, their weight
at the beginning of it— which is 4538 lb8.->is added to their weight at the
end of it, viz. 4967 lbs., and gives 9505 lbs., and then this sum divided by 2 giree
4752*5, which is considered to be the mean weight of the 40 Hampehize dorinif
the £r8t period. Itia this mean weight of 4752*5 lbs. that is suppoeed t9
acwsame the 1120 llm, ot oil-cake, 1120 Vbs. oi o\o^«t-\i&7, «si<^ \Vf2l^ Yb^ ^C

Comparative Fattening Qualities' of Sheep, 18

In Table III. we have the total food consumed, and the total
increase, bj each lot of 40 sheep between each period of weighing,
and, as might be expected from the very different weights of the
animals of the two breeds respectively, the amounts, botli of food
and increase within a given time, are always much greater in the
case of the Hampshire than in that of the Sussex sheep. But
from the resulte aa arranged in this Table, it cannot l)e ascertained
in which of the two ])reed8 a given amount of food has produced

swedes, before referred to, as given in Table III. ; and to bring these quantities
to ft weekly period, instead of a monthly one, we have only to divide each
of them by 4. Then we say : —

Mean weight. Oilcake. lbs. oz.

As 4752-5 280 :: 100 : 5 14^

100

4752*5) 28000*0 ( 5 lbs. 14^ oz. oil-oake consumed weekly per
237625 100 lbs. live weight of animal.

42375
16

4752-5) 678000 ( 14i
47525

202750
190100

12650

In the same way we say —

Hctn Weight. Clover- lbs. oe.

^ 4762*5 280 :: 100 : 5 14^ of clover consumed per 100 Ibn.

live weight of animal.
^ so on with the swedes-
Mean Weight. Swedes. lbs. oz.
^ 4752*5 5500 :: 100 : 73 10^ of swedes consumed per 100 lbs.

live weight of animal.
^ so on for the other periods. '

^ Table VIII. the Hampshire sheep are said to give a weekly increase in
^^htof 2 lbs. 4 OS. upon each 100 lbs. of their weight, during the first
P^od, elapsing between November 7th and December 5tn. To get this result
the same mean weight is used as before, and the increase during this period,
^•^29 lbs., is divided by 4 to bring out the result per week, instead of per
"»onth. Then we say :—

Mean weight. Increase. lbs. oa.

As 4752-5 107-25 :: 100 : 2 4 - the weekly increase per

100 100 lbs. live weight of animal.

4752-5 ) 1072500 ( 2
95050

12200
16

4752*5 ) 195200 ( 4
190100

Aad the results for the other periods are obtained in the same way. We
**ve given our methods of preparing these tables in detail, as we think it
Would be advantageous for others, who are engaged In feeding experiments,
«>«mptojrth6tm.

14 Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep.

the greater increase ; or, what is the same thing, in which case a
given quantity of increase is obtained at the cost of the least
consumption of food. This important point is brought clearly to
view in Table IV., but before passing to the consideration of it, it
will be well to make one or two remarks on some points which
are sufficiently obvious in Table III.

It has before been said tliat the dry foods were allotted to the
two breeds in fixed quantities, exactly in proportion to the weight of
animals in each respectively, and hence the uniformity in the
quantities of oil-cake and clover consumed daring most of the
monthly periods. It will be seen, however, that during the
period commencing with March 27th, when the animals were
shorn, the quantity of oH'Cake is increased to both lots by one
half the previous allowance. This it was thought well to do as
the animals progressed ; but by the mistake of the attendant the
ration of clover also was increased to the Sussex sheep at the
same time by being made equal to that of the Hampshires ; and
it is remarkable, as shown in the last two columns of the Table,
that in this jyeriod of an excess of clover in favour of the Sussex
sheep, they gave a higher increase than the Hampshires, though
they did so at no other period of the experiment. It should at
the same time be noticed that, in the period immediately preced-
ing this, the one of more than usual increase in the Sussex sheep,
they had gained much less than their average amount, so that
much of the subsequent higher rate of gain may in reality be
considered as only compensatory, rather than as due entirely to
the increased allowance of clover. Indeed, the results of these
two consecutive periods afford a striking instance of the fluctua-
tions in the apparent progress of animals, as indicated by their
weight taken at short intervals of time.

A glance at the columns giving the swedes consumed will
show that there was with both breeds a gradual increase in the
quantity eaten as the experiment proceeded ; and it is remarkable
too, that this increase in the amount of swedes is in both cases
much greater in the period commencing March 27th, when the
animals lost their wool, than at any other time during the course
of the experiment, notwithstanding that it was at this period that
the allowance of dry food was also considerably increased. The
increased consumption during the other periods is probably in
some part due to a depreciation in the quality of the turnips as
the season advanced, and not to be attributed entirely therefore to
the increased requirements of the animals. They would, it is
tnie, probably require more per head as they increased in size
and weight, but not proportionally to their increased weight, for
we shall presently see, on reference to Table VI., that, excepting
immediately after the animals lost their wool, the quantity con-

Comparative Fatteynn{f Qualities of Sheep.

somed per 100 lbs. Uife weight was rather lessened than increased
as the experiment advanced and the sheep approached maturity.

Taming now to Table IV. we have a view of the comparative
productive effects of the food in the two cases, during the different
periods, so far as the fluctuating weights of the animals during
such short intervals can be taken as the basis upon which to cal-
oolate it; but a glance down the columns of the Table will show
that no single period could be taken by itself as giving a fair point
of comparison between the two breeds in this respect.

It is seen that in some of the intervals the Sussex sheep con-
sumed the least food to produce a given quantity of inci-ease, but
in the majority of the cases the Hampshires nad the advantage ; and
the final result, as shown in the bottom line of the Table, is that,
to produce 100 lbs. increase of live weight, the Sussex sheej)
required 20^- lbs. more oil-cake, 42^ lbs. more clover chaff, and
145 lbs. more swedes, than the Hampshires. This is shown in
the summary of Table IV. given below; but it remains to be
seen, as we proceed, whether the increase of the Sussex sheep was
of such an increased value as to compensate for this greater quan-
tity of food required to produce it.

Table IX.

Showing the average Food consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in live-
weight, daring the entire period of 26 weeks.

Soseez
Hants

More food required
by Sussex Sheep

on Cake.

lbs.
314

oz.
4

294 0

Clover.

lb*«.
304

oz.
3

259 12

Swedes.

lbs.
4086

3941

145

fe Table V. are given the average quantities of food consumed
P^ head per week during each period of the experiment, and of
^Qrse the same relationship of figures will here be found as in
Table III., wherein are given the quantities consumed by 4o
^«^p per month ; but the lessened numbers in Table V. will be
piore easily studied. However, some of the chief points of
jJJteregt embodied in the facts of this Table are more clearly
'^fought out in Table VI., immediately succeeding it, in which are
^'^en the quantities consumed per 100 lbs, Uve-u'eir/ht per week instead
?f p^r head per week. Contrasting, however, the results of the two
Tables V. and VI., we find, as has already been alluded to, that al-
fnoQgh there is with both breeds something like a constant increase
'Q the amount of food consumed per head as the experiment pro-

IG Comparative Fatten Irnj Qualities of Sh^ep.

ceeded, yet, excepting immediately after the animals had lost
their wool, there is a disposition to decrease rather than increase
in the rate of consimiption of food, when calculated y><>/* 100 Iha.
live-weiyht of animal, instead of per head.

Comparing now one breed with the other, we lind that tlie two lots
consumed very different quantities of food per head pr week, but the
quantities consumed per 100 lbs. live- weight per week are, as given in
Table VI., almost identical for the two breeds. Thus, taking the
average of the entire jieriod oi the exjDeriment, as given in the
bottom line of Table VI. we have, both for Hampshire and Sussex,
the same amount of oil-aike consumed per 100 lbs. live- weight per
week, of clover 5 ounces more, and of turnips 2^ 11)8. less, by the
Sussex sheep than by the Hampshire ; — quantities which, when
the great difference in the proj.>ortions of water contained in these
two foods is considered, may l)e taken as yielding almost
identical quantities of sohd food to the animals, and therefore, as
for all practical pui-poses, neutralising each other. As has
already l)een said, the swedes were in both cases given ad libitum^
thus allowing the animals to fix their own limits of consumption
according to tlie recpiiremente of the system ; we conclude, there-
fore, that the natural re<]uiremeuts, whatever they may be, are,
under equal circumstances, the same for lx)th breeds. It may be
interesting here to observe, tliat numerous experiments on the
feeding of the various animals kei)t upon the farm clearly show
that this natural limit of consumption, as fixed by the animals
themselves, is determined far more by the amount supplied in the
food of those constituents which are teimed the respiratory and
fat-fonning principles, tlian by that of the nitrogenous ones.
Indeed, we have frequently found that whilst in a set of compara-
tive exjieriments the quantity consumed of the fonner has been
all but identical in the different cases, that of the latter (the
nitrogenous) has varied as much as from one to two, or more.

But we must not enter furtlier into this interesting question in
this place, though we have many facts relating to it which we
hope to publish shortly, in connection with the subject of feeding
generally.

From Table VI. we have learnt, then, that the Hampshire and
Sussex sheep consumed identical (quantities of f(X)d in relation to
their weight ; but in Tal)le IV. we have seen that the Hampshire
shee}) gave more increase for tliis food than the Sussex, for in
})roducing 100 ll>s. of increase the Sussex have consumed nearly 7
l)cr cent, more oil-ciike, 17^^ per cent, more clover, and 3:J per
cent, more swedes than the Hamjjshires.

In Table VII. we have the average gain per head per week, of
the two breeds, and it is worthy of remark that these sheep, of
sui^erior quality, as those of l>oth breeds undoubtedly were, of

Comimrative Fatfeniiuf QuaUiien of Shp*^), 17

their kind, supplied with a liberal allowance of food, and pro-
tected from the weather, should, in neither case, reach an average
gain of 8 lbs. per head per week, that of the Ham]»hires being
i\ lljs., and that of the Sussex scarcely 2 ll)s. 2 oz. By this
remark we do not mean to imply that the result is less than was
to be expected ; on the contrary, we believe the animals in both
caaes to have done exceedingly well, more so indeed than is
usual; but we wish to fix the attention of the reader upon these
'{oantities, because we know that many entertain exaggerated
••pinions as to the rate of increase of fattening sheep, which closer
attention to weights, and extending their trials to a greater num-
ber of animals, and over longer periods of time, would, we are
persQaded, dissipate.

Bnt as to this point of average gain per week, like those already
discussed, a clearer ccHiception will be gathered when the ciuan-
titr ig giren j)er 100 lbs. weight of animal, instead of jDer head.
This is done in Table VIII.

In Table VIIl., then, we see that in the case of neither breed
hare we an average increase, for the entire period of two per cent,
per week upon the weight of animal ; that upon the 100 lbs.
leing for the Hampshires only 1 lb. 14 oz., and for the Sussex
dieep only 1 lb. lOf oz. ! A glance down the columns of the
Table will show indeed for both lots of sheep, that during the whole
period of the experiments, they reached but twice an increase of
2 per cent, per week. One of these periods of high gain was,
in the case of both breeds, at the very commencement or the ex-
periment, when therefore the change from store to fattening food
vas likely to show more than an average result ; the other instance
of hi^h gain in the Sussex sheep was at the time of the increased
'juantity of clover ; with the Hampshire it was during the last
fortnight of the experiment, and was then only 2 IIds. OJ oz. ;
whilst the high increase of the Sussex sheep in the previous
lieriod, was in the next reduced to only 1 lb. 2} ox.

To repeat — ^with neither breed was there an increase of 3 Ibe.
per head per week during the fattening process, and with neither was
there a weekly increase of 2 per cent, on the hve weight ; that on
the Hampshires being 1 lb. 14 oz., and on the Sussex onljr 1 lb.
1^1 oz. ; in favour, therefore, of the Hampshire sheep m this
*^Tject by i^ OL,y or about one-eiglith of the whole amount.

The next point of comparison lietween the two breeds is as to
the amountfi of wool obtained from each.

The quantities of wool shorn from each individual sheep are
Pven for the two breeds respectively in Tables I. and 11., but a
wnnmary of the figures of those Tables is here brought to
view : —

Comparative Fattening Qifalities of Sheep.

Table X.

Wool shorn from the )
Hampfihires, March 27 j

Ditto Snssex, March 27

Difference

Total Amount

from
the 40 Sheep.

lbs.
250f

225

25f

Average,
per Head.

lbs. oz.
0 4

0 10

Proportton of

Wool to 100

Live Weight of

Animal.

3-77
4-57

0-80

The larger sheep, the Hampshire, gives then au average of G^
Ihs. of wool per nead, and the smaller one, the Sussex, 5 lbs.
10 oz. If, however, we consider these quantities in relation to
the weights of the animals at the time they were shorn respec-
tively, we see, as in the 8rd column of the Table, that the Hamp-
shire, though probably by some weeks an older sheep, gives only
3*77 per cent., or 3| lbs. of wool per 100 lbs. weight of animal,
whilst the Sussex gives 4'57 per cent., or rather more than 4^ lbs.
of wool upon every 100 lbs. live weight.- The quality of the
wool of the Sussex sheep is also rather superior to that of the
Hampshire, but to this point we shall presently recur.

The result is, then, that the Sussex sheep, with a live weight of
only about three-fourths that of the Hampshire, has given nine-
tenths as much wool, which is equivalent to one-fifth more wool
yielded by the Sussex sheep upon an equal live weight of
animal.

It is said that although the Sussex sheep does not come so
early to maturity as the Hampshire, yet, when fit for the butcher,
not only does it give a larger proportion of carcass and less of
ofFal, but that the price of the meat is higher, and also that of the
wool, and sufficiently so to comi)ensate for any disadvantages in
other respects. But before entering upon the question of the
money result of the experiment, we will give the particulars of
the proportions of carcass and of loose fat, &c., of some of the
animals, which were killed at home with a view of deciding upon
the comparative qualities of the two breeds in these respects.

It was our object, indeed, so to complete the experiment that,
us far as possible, it should include a comparison of the degree of
maturity of the animals, and of the money result up to the time to
which we have already brought this Report ; and also give some
information as to the relative productive qualities of the two
breeds under a more lengthened course of feeding. With this
view it was determined to kill 16 of each lot at home, and send
the carcasses to Newgate Market; to send 16 of each alive to
Smithfield ; and to feed the remaining 8 of each until Christmas.

Comparative Fattening Qualities of S/ieep.

11)

The selection of the animals so as satisfactorily to meet the
points, as above described, was somewhat difficult, but the plan
adopted was as given below.

With respect to the first lot of 16 of each breed to he killed at
home, the object was to draw those animals for this purpose which
had shown the two extremes as to rate of increase, as well as
some which seemed to have the average quaUties of the breed to
which they belonged in this respect. Tnose taken were there-
fore—

The 4 of largest increase ;

The 4 of smallest increase ; and

The 8 which had given an increase nearest the average of the
4U.

The 16 to be sold alive comprised the 8 of the next largest
and the 8 of the next smallest increase to those of the two extreme
lote just mentioned.

And the 8 to be fed on till Christmas* w^ere the 4 of the next
krger and the 4 of the next smaller increase to those allotted as
last described, so that these sheep were intermediate in point of
rate of increase between the 16 to be sold alive and the 8 of
medimn increase to be killed at home.

The following summary will show to what extent this method
of selection gave a fair average of quality in each lot as to increase,
and produce of wool : —

Table XI.

Increase

per Head

inclndliig Wool.

Wool

per Head

(Shorn March 27)

Original Weight
Noyember 7.

Final Weight

May 8,
withoat Wool,

Hants.

Snflsex.

Hant&

Sussex.

Hants.

Saasex.

Hants.

Siiscex.

^te&oftbe 16 klUed)
•thome 1

^tenoftbeieioIdaUTr

^ of ibe 8 to be fed)
t^ChrtetmM . . .>

Ibe.
71-6

68-1

68*6

Ibe.
6S-8

62*6

68-0

Ibe. OI.
6 164

6 H

6 6

Ibe. OK.
6 10

6 10

lbs.
113-3

118-2

114-2

lbs.

88-6

H9-8
H3-2

lbs.
178-9

174-2

176-4

lbs.
136-2

1370

130-6

^<c*nof the 40 HuiU)
ttdSiUKZ . . . .)

69-6

6J-7

6 4

C 10

113-4

KH-0

17G-5

135-4

It would be difficult to devise a method of selection which
should give, both within each lot, and between lot and lot of each
breed, the average qualities possessed by the whole ; but taking

* At the time we are oorrecting for the press (October 1851) the trial in
'^ference to these animals is of coarse not yet completed, so that the reenlts
^^ be reeerved for some f ntore occasion.

c 2

Comparative Fattening Qualities of Shee^h

as our ground of selection the point of the rate of increnBe, which
is certainly an important character in a fattening animal, we have, at
least as regards this point, obtained a considerable degree of
uniformity in the average of each lot, as compared >vith that of the
whole. The chief exception is the first lot of the Hampshires,
and the high average weight of increase here seen is due to the
excessive rate of gain of the 4 largest animals of this breed ; and,
as will be seen, the selection according to increase, which has
thus drawn out these animals for killmg, has satisfactorily led
to an explanation of their comparatively rapid gain in weight
Three out of the four of them were, mdeed, what are termed
"riggs," or were only half -castrated, and hence they grew in
frame enormously. They would, doubtless, l)e masters of all
the other sheep, and always secure the lion's share of food, or at
least make Avhatcver selection of it they chose.

Another benefit of the mode of selection adopted was that, as
rate of inrreme is really the great question at issue, we by this
means secured for killing at home, and taking the weights of all
the parts, those animals in which the maximum, the minimimiy
and the mean tendency to increase had been manifested, so that
if there were any clearly defined connection between the rate of
increase on the one hand, and the relation of dead weights to live
on the other, this seemed likely to be brought to light in the
results.

In the following Table are given some of the main particulars
of the animals whilst alive, by the side of those obtained on
killing them : —

Comparative Fattening Qualitiet of Skeep.

ill!

llillii!

1
1

III

liii

III!

Ifilii!!

1 1 1

HI!

l£il

Iflliii!

1 ? 1

fill

ill!

Illilil!

;

1 I I

nil

Hiilili

ill

3SSS

iiil

istliiii

III

1115

nil

liisliii

ill

iiil

His

IHIIssi

ill

EI£E:;rS2S

S g R

SSSffi

" 3* 2

S 5 g

1,1

ilzsS

3s=a

Sgg£S^0S

S S S

■A

|i35S

S=?S

SJSSSg*!

S S R

;

3S|3

asasssns

s 2 1

-1

iSSES

S¥|S

SlSSSags

^ 2 S

iS££S

SSSK

3SSSSSS2

i 1 ?

JS5S5

|- = 3

IsisSISs

E f r

JIH:

;;::

::::::::

: : :

u..=

::::

;:":;;!

" r 2

lf«S

tiU

izsiiisS

s s s

alTss

j5H

sTsIfsM

S 3 S

i'^/

...=

ss"

s=s-s'ss

r^fe

5^-\

// -4

'!k

fi]

--??s?a23

\m^

\°5

22 Comparativp Faffeninr/ Qualities of Sh^p,

III the columns of increase the very ^eat increase of the first
three Hampshires, to which allusion has already been made,
stands out prominently, and it amounts to an average of 3j lbs.
per head per week.

In the case of both the breeds, the second lot, or the four of
least increase, gave an amount of gain little more than half that
of the lot preceeding it. On the oth^r hand, in the list of
medium increase, the 8 of each breed give among themselves
respectively almost indentical amounts of increase. We have thus,
as was desired, among the IG animals chosen to be killed, great
diversity as to rate of increase, though, as we have already seen,
and as the summary at the bottom of the Table shows, an average
not differing widely from the average of the 40. But it would
seem that, so far as the particulars given in Table XII. can indi-
cate it, the animals thus brought together in each lot as having
increased at equal rates, had developed but few other distinctive
characters in common. Thus, first taking a glance at the colunm
giving the amoimts of wool shorn from these animals which were
drawn out for killing, we shall see a very great irregularity in its
quantity per head within each of the lots of nearly equal rate of
increase, and this remark applies pretty equally to both breeds ;
nor is the difference much less prominent among the 8 animals
of great regularity as to rate of increase than with the two lots of
4 each, showing respectively extreme and opposite qualities in
this respect. The differences are, however, not quite so marked
among the 8 Sussex sheep of medium rate of increase as among
the corresponding 8 of the Hampshire breed.

Next, as to the proportion of dead weight to live, whether we
take the per-centage of carcass in the gross, or hi the fasted live
weight, we find in both breeds an almost equal irregularity among
the animals of nearly equal increase : though in both breeds the
differences are certainly less among the 8 animals of more average
quality than with either of the other lots.

But if we take the mean results, as given at the foot of the
Table, we see that . the three lots respectively of largest, of
smallest, and of medium increase give very nearly equal pro-
portions of carcass ; and, comparing the one breed with the
other in this respect, we have a still nearer identity.

With r^rd to the point of inside or loose fat, it is remarkable
that there is in both breeds as wide a range of difference among
the 8 animals of medium and nearly equal rate of increase, as
among the individuals of either of the other lots. The differences,
indeed, in the proportion of inside fat are much greater l^etween
the individual animals of the several lots than between the averages
either of the different lots of the same breed or of the different
breeds. To this remark the 4 largest Hampshires are somewhat

Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sti/>ep. 23

exceptional, the indiyidnals of this lot giving very nearly equal
proportions of loose fat, though the average for the lot is less
than for any other ; this indeed is quite oousistent hoth with the
appearance of these animals and with the known fact of their
tendency to increase in frame rather than to fatten.

Taking the average of the 16 sheep in each case, we find the
Sussex sheep have given more loose fat than the Hampshires by
about 0*2 per cent., an amount which is really insignificant.
Nevertheless, it is worthy of remark that the direction of this
difference is quite consistent with that between the average pro-
portion of lung found in the two cases. Thus we have in the
Sussex a rather higher per-centage both of loose fat and of lung ;
characters which, when they pi^ominate, bespeak more of the
habit of exercise and a tendency to develop fat more rapidly
around the abdominal viscera than upon the carcass ; whilst the
opposite characters are those which indicate an animal of less
roaming habits, and more accustomed and fitted to have an easy
access to a liberal supply of good food, and with these, more of
the tendency to increase in carcass, and less in the alimentary
organs and the fat surrounding them. These qualities are hi fact
those of " early maturity ; " and it is cei*taiuly a great deside-
ratum in a fattening animal to attain the necessary ripeness of meat
with as little expenditure as possible of time and food in the
production of mere inside fat or tallow, to the profit of the butcher.

It is true that our experiments have shown very slight differ-
ences between the two breeds in relation to the points in questioM,
yet still the direction of those differences is consistent with the
current opinions on the subject in reference to the two breeds,
viz., that the Hampshire sheep comes earlier to maturity, and
that the Sussex, when ripe, gives more valuable offal to the butcher.

That there is some general connection between relative small-
oess of lung and of loose fat on the one hand, and tendency to
increase on the other, is further seen on comparing the different
lots of the same breed with one another in the summary at the
foot of the Table ; for we there see that with both breeds the
smallest proportion both of lung and of loose fat was in the lots
of largest increase. With regard to lung the converse is also
trae, for we find that this proportion is largest with the lots giving
the smallest increase : the same holds good with regard to loose
fat so far as the Hampshires are concerned ; and with the Sussex,
though the lot of medium increase gives a higher proportion still,
nevertheless the lot of smallest increase does give a higher
amount of loose fat than the lot of largest increase. With this
slight exception, then, the general fact, as stated above, seems
fulk borne out by the tenor of the results relating to it.

It \& not our intention to enter further into questions of this

24 Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep.

kiud in this place ; the weights of all the internal organs of the
animals killea at home were however taken, but the results will
be reserved for publication with many others of the same kind,
when we take up the general question of the composition of the
animals fed upon the farm, which we hope to do before long, in
continuation of the subject already commenced in an article
entitled "Sheep Feeding and Manure," in a former Number of
this Journal.

We have fomid, then, in reference to the particulars of dead
weights which have been given —

That the prapartion of carcass to live weight differs very much
among animals of equal rates of increase ; that in both breeds,
however, the lot of least increase gave the least average propor-
tion of carcass ; that there is a greater difference in regard to this
point among the animals of the same breed than between breed
and breed. Indeed, the results of carcass weight have brought
out no distinctive points as between the two breeds, but rather
show that its proportion depends more upon the quality and
condition of the particular animal than upon the breed to which
it belongs.

And Avith regard to loose or inside fat we also find great
difference in its proportion, both among animals of equal increase
and of the same breed ; though, taking the average of the 16 in each
C4ise, but little difference between the two breeds. The Sussex
sheep, however, gave slightly the higher proportion of loose fat.

Having traced the experiment thus far, we now come to the
question of its money result.

The last weighing of the sheep was on May 8th, and, as we
have already stated, it was decided to sell 16 dead at Newgate
Market, 16 alive at Smithfield, and to feed the remaining 8 of
each lot of 40 until Christmas.

The 16 of each lot for Smithfield were sent up to the following
Monday's market. May 12th ; and to the Newgate Market of
the same day the 4 of largest and the 4 smallest increase of each
breed were also sent, they having been killed in readiness on the
Saturday. On Tuesday, 18th, the 8 of medium increase of each
breed were killed in like manner, and sent up on the Wednesday
night, for the Thursday morning's Newgate market.

In Tables XIII. and XIV., which follow, are given the pro-
ceeds of these sales ; and the 8 to be fed on till Christmas are,
for the purposes of our calculation, valued at the same amoant
per head as the 16 of each breed sold alive, to which their weights
approximated very closely. The return for the wool and oflFal it
also given. And in the right-hand division of the Tables ia
stated what would have been the produce of the 40, calculated
at the rate of each of the separate sales.

Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep.

Table XIII.— Produce of Sale of the Hampehires.

* telteS^ }«««-««•»*«• p«^ •*<''«>

Bach Lot
separately.

Wool at n\d, per lb.
Skins, at 9dl^. eaoh ....
Head« ax^d Plooks, at l#.2i^ eaoh
Looee Fat, at 3^. per lb. . .

Exiling, %d, per head ; selling and charges
at Newgate Market, Is. \d

Net for 8 Sheep sold dead
Net per head ....

lbs.
799

£ s, d,

18 15 S

2 15 \\

0 6 0

0 9 4

1 4 3

18 9 n\
0 12 8

17 17 Si

2 4 8

The Rates
of each
separate Lot,
calculated as
for 40 sheep.

£ 4. d.
68 16 S

13 15 74

1 10 0

2 6 8
6 13

92 9 91
3 3 4

89 6 54

8 mediun Sheep— Carcasses, 3#. 3<^. per stone .

Wool, at 134<i. per lb

Skins, at ^d, each ....
Heads and Plucks at U. 2d, each
Loose Fat, at 34^. per lb. . .

»1

Killing, 8<i. per head; selling, and charges
tt Newgate Market, 7«, id. ...

Net for 8 Sheep sold dead

Net per head

783
46|

•*f

16 17 10
2 12 7
0 6 0

0 9 4

1 8 104

20 14 74
0 12 8

20 1 114

2 10 3

79 9 2
13 2 11

1 10 0

2 6 8
7 4 44

103 13 14
3 3 4

100 9 94

^^ Sheep sold aliye, at 41^. per head . . .
I, „ Wool, at 134^. per lb.

Oonunission and selling .
Net for 16 Sheep sold aliye
Net per head

• • • •

SUMMABT.

^ ^eep of largest and 4 Sheep of smallest
increasey sold dead

^ Sheep of medinm increase, sold dead . . .

^^ Sheep of ayerage incrcAse, sold alive . . .

^ Sheep not sold, estimated at the price of tho
Sheep sold lUiye

Avenge per head

104

32 16 0
5 17 0

38 13 0
0 10 8

38 2 4

2 7 7f

17 17 34
20 1 114
38 2 4

19 1 2

82 0
14 12

0
6

96 12
1 6

95 5

95 2 9

1 - \

% 1 ^\\

Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep.

Table XIV. — Produce of Sale of the Sussex Sheep.

^ Sheep-4 largrest & I caroasseB, 3*. per etone .
4 smallefit increase ) ^"»^*«^» "*• f«* "«*/**«

»»

>»

»»

Wool, at lid. per lb. . .
Skins, at Id, eaoh . . .
Heads and Plucks, at 1#. each
Loose Fat, at S</. per lb.

Killings, 8/i. per head ; selling, and charges
at Newgate Market, 7#. 4^

Net for 8 Sheep sold dead

Net per head

Bach Lot.
separately.

Tbe Bates
of each
imrateLot.
ealcalated as
for 40 Sheep.

lbs.
691

444

• ••

• • •

£ «. d,

11 1 7

2 11 11

0 4 8

0 8 0

0 18 6

15 4 8
0 12 8

14 12 0

1 16 6

£ «. d.
55 7 11

12 19 7

13 4

2 0 0

4 12 6

76 3 4
3 3 4

73 0 0

8 medium Sheep— Carcasses, 3«. i\d, per stone

Wool, at \id, per lb. . . .
Skins, at Id, each ....
Headsand Plucks, at 1«. each
Lootoe Fat, at %\d. per lb.

Killing, 8<i. per head ; selling, and charges
at N« -- - -

• ?

»»

>»

»>

»»

>»

(ewgate Market, 7#. 4^.

Net for 8 Sheep sold dead
Net per head ....

16 Sheep sold alive, at 85«. per head . . .

Wool, at 14(1. per lb.

»t

Commission and selling .
Net for 16 Sheep sold alive
Net per head

610
45i

12 17 4

2 12 9i

0 4 8

0 8 0

1 3 4

17 6 14
0 12 8

64 6 8
13 3 111

1 3 4

2 0 0
5 16 8

86 10 1\
3 3 4

16 13 h\

2 1 8i

83 7 34

28 0 0
5 5 0

33 5 0
0 10 8

32 14 4

2 0 11

70 0 0
13 2 6

83 2 6
16 8

81 15 10

SUMMABY.

4 Sheep of largest and 4 Sheep of smallest
increase, sold dead

8 Sheep of medium increase, sold dead . . .
16 Sheep of ayerage increase, sold aUve . . .

8 Sheep not sold, estimated at the price of the
Sheep sold aliye

Ayeiftge per head .

14 12 0

16 13 54

32 14 4

16 7 2

80 6 114

• • • \ .*• \

^ ^ ^

Comparative Fattmin^i Qualities of Sheep,

Table XV. — Summary — showing the Money Value of the Forty Fat
Sheepy and the Average Value j»^ ffead (inclusive of Wool) at the
rate of each Sale, and of the several Sales collectively.

Hampshires.

It the rate of the four Sheep of largest and the four
of smalleet inorease, sold dead

M the rate of the eight Sheep of mediam increase,
sold dead

At the rate of the sixteen average Sheep, sold alive

Sixteen Sheep sold dead, sixteen alive, and eight
estimated as sold alive, give

Sussex Sheep.

At the rate of the four sheep of largest and the four
of smallest increase, sold dead

At the rate of the eight Sheep of mediam increase,
Mlddead

At the rate of the sixteen average Sheep, sold alive

Sixteen Sheep sold dead, sixteen alive, and eight
estimated as sold alive, give

For the
40 Sheep.

£ a. d.

89 6 54

80 6 Hi

Per Head.

& 9. d.

2 4 8

100
95

9 9|
5 10

2 10
2 7

8
7i

2 9

2 7

0 0

1 16

83
81

7 3i
15 10

2 1
2 0

8i
11

2 0 2

It may be remarked by way of comment on Tables XIIL, and
XIV., which give the detail of the sales, that the carcasses were
carefully weighed at home in the evening just before they were
packed and sent off, this being 24 to 36 honrs after the first
weighings which were taken as soon as they left the hands of
the batcher ; but the weights allowed by the Newgate salesmen
'^re less than our own by about 2^ lbs. per head. This, if cor-
f^, would be equivalent to a loss of weight one and a half times
l?^ter during the single night of the journey, and after the meat
had become perfectly cold and stiff, than had taken place in 28
to 86 hours after the warm carcass had been first hung up in a
^ious and airy bam. This loss we conceive to be quite im-
P»8ible, but as the lots sold on May 12th and 15th respectively
'^ere sent to different salesmen, and the deficiency in weight was
Nearly equal with both of them, it would seem that on some ar-
f^nmt or other the farmer' loses about Is, per Iiead in this way.

Again, referring to Tables XIII. and XIV., we see that the
average price per stone of 8 lbs. of the first sale was for the
Hampshires 2s. 9«?., and for the Sussex 3«. ; and of the second
^fe, for the Hampshires %s, Sd,, and for the Sussex 3«. i^fl.
There is then a difference in favour of the Sussex mutton of 3^.
per Btone at the first sale, and of iW. per stone at the second. It
^ill be remembered that the animafe of the first sale were in each
<^ the four of largest and the four of smallest increase ; and
that among the Hampshires therefore of this sale, we have the
^ "riggs'^ before referred to. These animals, which were

28 Comparative Fatteiwig Qualities of Sheep.

heavier than any of the others, Bold at much lower rates than th^
rest ; the average price of the Hampshires sold at the first sale is,
therefore, rather unfairly reduced through this circumstance, and
hence the greater difference in favour of the Sussex sheep at this
sale. In the second sale, however, the Hampshires weie aD of
them exceedingly nice mutton.

There is a difference of 6^. per stone between the first and
second sale of Hampshires, and of ^\d, per stone between the first
and second sale of Sussex sheep, which, it will be seen in Table
XV., is equal to a difference of bs. Id. per head on the Hamp-
shires and hs, 2d. per head on the Sussex between the two days'
siile. This serious difference was the result of a veiy flat market
on May 13th, but as tlie disadvantage would be nearly equal for
both l)reed8, the comparison between them is not thereby
affected.

As nearly as can be estimated, deducting, of course, the value
of the offal, the Hampshire sheep sold alive, also on May 18th,
realized about 2». lO^rf. per stone, and the Sussex sold alive at
the same time *ds. 2d. per stone.

At the foot of Tables XIII. and XIV. respectively are given
the money value of each lot of 40 sheep, 32 of them being
actually sold, and the remaining 8 of each calculated at the rate
of the sheep sold alive ; and a glance at the Summary Table
XV., will show that the price of the 40 as thus obtained, is, in
the case of both tlie breeds, exceedingly near to the rate
that the animals sold for ahve. In Tables XIII. and XIV. it is seen
that the wool of the Sussex sheep fetched ^. per lb. more
than that of the Hampshires.

The loose fat (which includes both the caul and the gut fat)
sold for iid. per lb. more at the second sale than at the first, but
this was the same for both breeds.

In attempting to make out a debtor and creditor account of a
feeding experiment we meet with many difficulties, * some of
which we ao not profess to overcome in the statement which
we now subjoin. Indeed, we wish it to be clearly understood
that in showing a balance account of the experiment we only seek
to make sl fair comparison^ and by no means imdertake to discnss
in this place the question of the profit or loss of feeding gene-
rally, or of feeding in this particular case, considered as a branch
of farming practice ; but only to show as far as we are able what
have been the comparative merits of the two breeds in a money
point of view. With this limited object then, we charge against
neither breed the cost of transit from the breeder, which would of
course vary with the locality of the purchaser, nor do we make
any charge for attendance or for the carriage of the animals to
market at last.

Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep,

With the still more serious items— the cost of the turnips
consumed, and the value of the manure produced, we must deal as
best we can ; but as the reader will have before him all the
materials upon which the calculations are based, he will be able
to arrive at his own conclusions, by any method he may think
more applicable.

Excluding these items, then, for the present, we give in Tables
XVl. and XVII. the cost of the lambs November 7th, when the
experiment commenced, and that of the purchased food consumed
-K)il-cake and clover — on the one side ; and, per contra, the pro-
doce of sale of the 40 fat sheep, as obtained in each case from 16
sold dead, 16 sold alive, and 8 calculated as sold alive.

Table XVI. — Balance Account of the Hampshires.

Cost of forty Hampshire Wether Lambs, l^ovember 7 th.

1850, at 29«. per head

Thdj oonsnmed ot pnrohaaed food :-^

8120 llM. Oiloaktt, at 6/. 15«. per ton ....
7280 lbs. Clover Haj, at 42. per ton

Total pnrchaaed food . « .

^nty fat Hampshiito Sh^ep, k Wool, sold Maj, 1851, for

Differenoe

iflrtMta^aiMi

£ #. d.

24 9 44
13 0 0

Atk

£ 5. d.

58 0 0

37 9 4i

9o 9 4i
95 2 9

0 0 7i

Table XVII. — Balance Account of the Sussex Sheep.

<^of forty Soflset Wether Tjambe, Noyefnber 7th, 1850,

at 25#. 6(1. per h«ad

Iliej cx>n8amed of pnitthaMd food ."-■

6272 lbs. Oilcake, at 6/. 15«. per ton

6020 Ibe. Clover Hay, at 4/. per ton ....

18
10

It.

...

18
15

0
0

£
51

0
13

d.
0

Total porchaied food . . .

• • •

• • •
■ • •

Forty fat SnBsex Sheep, and Wool, sold May, 1851, for

80
80

18
6

Differenoe

The Hampshire lambs are here charged 29«. per head, and the
Sussex 258. 6rf. The price paid for the Hampshires when bought
in, was, however, 26«., ana that of the Sussex lambs 26*. ; but
tliee-pence per ireek per head is added to these prioes for the
time the animals were on store keep^ before the experiment com-
mence!, viz., 12 weeks for the Hampshires, and two for the

80 Comparative Fattening Q^iaHties of Sheep,

Sussex. The oil-cake and the clover are charged at the prices
paid for them dehvered.

From these balance tables it appears that, in both cases, the
prices of the fat sheep (and their wool) covered, within a few
shillings, the cost of tne lambs and of the purchased food ; —
that is to say, the increase of animal has exactly paid for the
purchased food. And it is remarkable that upon tne whole 40
sheep in each case, there is a difference of only Id. in this respect,
between the two breeds, the Sussex having the advantage by this
amount.

In both cases, then, the dry food has been paid for by the in-
creased value of the 40 sheep, and in both cases, therefore, we
have the manure of this food and of the turnips consumed, to pay
for those turnips, and for attendance on the animals. Of course
this exact equality between the value of the purchased food and
that of the mcrease, is, to some extent, accidental ; for the result
would have been different had the whole 40 sheep been sold at
the rate of either of the individual sales, instead of in several lots,
as they actually were : indeed the rate of these sales may fairly be
taken for illustrating this, as the average weight of animal l)eing
nearly the same at each sale, the difference in price was chiefly
dejxjndent upon the state of the market.

Thus, if all had been sold at the first sale, the increase of the
Hampshires would not have paid for their dry food by 6Z. 2s, lie/.,
und that of the Sussex would have fallen short by 7/. 135. ; in
favour of the Hampshires, therefore, in this respect, by 1/. lOs, Id.

Again, if the second sale of dead meat had been our rule, the
Hampshires would have given 5Z. i)s, 4^^/. more than the cost of
their drj food, and the Sussex only 21, 145. 3^. ; in favour again
of the Hampshires of 21, Gs. Id,

And lastly, if all had been sold at the rate of the 16 sold alive,
the Hampshires would have been deficient by Ss. G^rf., and the
Sussex would have given a balance of 1/. 28. lOd, ; so that the
rates of this sale would have been in favour of the Sussex sheep
by 1/. 6«. 4]^.

These illustrations are only given to show how difficult it is to
come to an unconditional decision as to money returns in such
experiments ; especially when the result is so nearly equal as in
the two cases in question.

But even assuming that the artificial food has been in both
cases exactly \md for by the increase of animal, leaving the
manure of the dry food and of the turnips to pay for the attend-
ance and for the turnips, this would not, of itself, be sufficient to
prove equaUty of profit to the farmer, unless the quantity of
turnips to be thus paid for were exactly the same, in both cases, in
])roportion to the ary foods consumed. It may be well, there-

CamparativB FatUtung Qualities of Sheep. 81

fore, to trace the comjiarison a little further, if only as a means of
pointing oat the direction in which the true solution of such ques-
tions must be attained, involving as it does, the value of the tur-
nips and that of the manure, respecting which few farmers would
agree ; nor have they at present the necessary data at command,
upon which to form any trustworthy judgment.

We find, then, that —

The Hampshires with 8120 lbs. of oilcake and 7280 lbs. of
clover consimied 49^ tons of swedes ; and that with 6272 lbs. of
oilcake and 6020 lbs of clover, the Sussex sheep have consumed
86 /ij tons of Swedes.

llie two lots of 40 sheep each, have therefore consumed very
different quantities of turnips. But the farmer would of course
adapt the number of his flock to his breadth of turnips, and there-
fore in keeping Sussex sheep would, according to their size, have
a greater number of them than he would of Hampshires.

The question is, then, what would have been the quantity of
the dry foods consumed, and the consequent relative value of the
manure, supposing the number of the sheep had been such, in both
cases, as to have consumed an equal quantity of turnips.

Suppose then that in both cases 100 tons of swedes had been
eaten, we should have had consumed with them, and paid for by
the increase of animal, —

OUcake Clover,

lbs. Ibfl.

By the SnsBez Sheep .... 17,874 and 16,676

By the Hampshires 16,470 „ 14,767

Difference .... 904 ,. 1,909

That is to say, in consuming 100 tons of swedes (and the dry
^oods), Sussex sheep would, according to our experiment, have
given the manure from 904 lbs. more oilcake and 1909 lbs. more
tJlover than the Hampshires. To have consumed the quantities
<>f food supposed above, however, in 26 weeks, there would have
^n required 80 Hampshires and about 110 of the Sussex
sheep.

According to this method of calculating the results, then, the
Sussex sheep would have a slight advantage over the Hampshires
as fattening stock kept upon the farm for their double produce of
Qieat and manure ; but so slight is the difference, and, as we have
seen, so little would have throAnn the balance in the opposite direc-
tion, that we do not consider that the experiment has shown any
<«rtain advantage in favour of either breed, but rather that the
two, as stock for rapid fattening on a liberal supply of artificial
food, have very nearly eoual merits in a money point of view.

It may perhap be objected by the advocates of the respective
hreeds, that owing to the fluctuations which have l)een pointed

32 Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep,

out in the apparent progress of the anunals, the result would
have been different had the experiment been concluded at some
other period of its course than the one adopted. But although it
is true that during single or individual periods of the experiment,
the result as to the relative amount of increase given for an equal
quantity of food would have been reversed, yet, if the experiment
had been concluded at the end of twelve weeks, or at any of the
succeedinff periods of weighing, instead of in 26 weeks, the result
would still have been the same in directum^ though sometimes
more and sometimes less in favour of the Hampshires than at
present.

It is true, indeed, that from all the results given in the preceding
pages, so various in their detail, yet giving in the gross some
oommon points of consistency, we may at least leam over t^in the
lesson that in seeking to elicit general rules, when the subtle
principle of animal life is involved in our calculations, great
caution is requisite so to multiply our results as to exclude the in-
fluence of casual and individual sources of ettror. Nevertheless we
conceive that the gross results of 40 shee|) fed for 26 weeks, can-
not but be taken as giving some fair points of comparison, whether
of a negative character or otherwise, as between the two breeds.
And we believe that it may at least be concluded as the restilt of
the experiment, that by the two, equal quantities of food will be
consumed by a given weight of animal, within an equal period of
time ; but that the Hampshire will give a greater increase for this
food than the Sussex sheep. In the case of our experiment this
deficient weight of increase in the Sussex has been exactly com-
pensated for by the greater quantity of the wool and the higher
price of the Sussex mutton ; and it is probable that wherever, as
in the neighbourhood of London or other large towns, there is
what may be termed a fancy price for Sussex mutton, that breed
may, other things being equal, prove the most profitable, as it cer-
tainly is superior in form and general appearance. In many dis-
tricts, however, no such fancy price exists, and in these localities
— always supposing them otherwise fitted for either — the larger
breed would probably be the most profitable. It is our intention
to pursue this subject, however, and in our next experiment to
include several other oreeds of sheep, by which we nope to be
able to decide more definitely as to the relation of food Consumed
to meat produced, by animals of different forms and weights.

The gross results of all the Tables embodied in the pre-
ceding pages, are given at one view in the following tabttkted
summary :

Oon^rative Fattening Qvattties of Sheeji.

TABLE XVin.
Oekebal Sukhabt.

P.„,cr,..<.

AcUBl KcaultB of
I[ipCTln.emiL

PeranUgoEeH-

SlUMX.

reKUlls

innnvBlght nrhCBd whenpat apNor. I . .

Annie -eight per he«d when tanlnolnfllng wootj
TduI benMe to weight or 4U ibeep In K wGcte .

iSSSS^lOofSlireweighlperHwk .'

TCU) oinl oC 40 iheep. ibam Uorcb »tb . . . .
"wlpfrbBui dVtto illtio . . . .

1 uid4olDn>II'-) Weighu alliiwed bj

isff\ ""■"■"■ '"""

■' '""""

'of the 111 killed
,0f tbclLarsEit

f>.ni™ erf c.r<«i {«rfd) ii.)S{'E;;r5r"

IWIU. of the r«ted weight . JOtita-Bmeumm
' Of (he 10 killed

11* DB.

lb*, ou.

j^;i

- SS-UB

g.l!0
7J90

7* '?

S.MI II

6.1tT2
6.ii2U

J3M

HS'»3
74'U

Bone.

S,771

WOO
ISU-M

- lo-aj

li Bl
II 4)

11 H

M. IbJl.

« H

74-00
7717

— ai-H»
-WW

-W-M
-I4-7*

Ifi-flT

^om

10-73

+ l>-»J

DU-gi

loo-sa
eo-wi

ir^

0089

.oso

.«■«.

-u-n

Comparative Fattening Qualities of Sheep.

PARTICULARS.

Ayerago weight of loom fftt
per head (weighed warm) .

Proportion of loose fat in 100
lbs. of the fasted weight . .

Areragc weight of lung and
half windpipe per head
(weighed warm)

Proportion of lungs (including
half the windpipe) in 100 lbs.
of the faste<l weight . . .

Of the 4 largest
Of the 4 smallest
Of the 8 medium

Of the 16 killed

Of the 4 largest''
Of the 4 smallest
Of the 8 medium

Of the 16 IciUed

Of the 4 largest
Of the 4 smallest
Of the 8 medium

Of the 16 killed

Of the 4 largest
Of the 4 smallest
Of the 8 medium

Of the 16 kUled

Price of the carcass per stone ( At the 1st sale .
of 8 lbs (At the 2nd sale .

^hSd TS'.-rSw dSjfof tho8«.l<lMayl8th

(^hSLt wSS) I ^'^ I o' ">« « «•" »^>- »">

Gross money return per head of the 16 of each )
■old alive (without wool) ]

Average value of wool per head

Price of wool per lb > . •

Actual Resulta of
Experiments.

HamiMhire.

Biunex.

lbs. ozs.

13 151

11 5

12 7

12 S|

lbs. ozs.

9 9f

PerOentageRela
tion of Sussex tc
Hampshire.

Relation

of
Sussex
results

to
Hamp-
shire
as 100.

Difference.

7022
74*48
81*56

78'5«

6*54
7*34
7*24

7*02

lbs. ozs.

1 9
1 9

1 9|

0*840
1034
0*933

0*935

2 9

3 3

39
45

41 0

i?l

706
7*17
7*46

7*10

lbs. ozs.
1
1
1 6

1 5

0*889
1*049
1*031

1*000

«. d.

3 0
3 4i

31 7f
86 6}

35 0

6 6i
1 2

10S*26

97*64

102*94

10i*18

—20-78
-25*67

—18-44

—21*46

+ 8*26
— 2-3«
+ 2*94

+ 1*18

76-77
77*86
87-89

81*00

106*838
101*460
110*604

106*962

109-09
103*86

80*60
80*64

85 37

92*90
103-70

-23*23
-22-14
-12*11

—19-00

+ 6*838

+ 1*460

+ 10-604

+ 6-M2

+ 9-00
+ 8-86

—19-60
—19*46

- 15-68

— 7-10
+ 8-70

LONDON:
Printed by William Clottes and Sons, Stamford Street,

1852.
Rc-printcd by Dunk and Cbidoet, 165 dc 167, KingKland Iload, B.

188«.

REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS

ON THK

COMPARATIVE FATTENING QUALITIES

or DIFFERENT

BREEDS OF SHEEP.

Part II.— COTSWOLDS.

By J. B. LA WES,

BOTUAMBTKD, HERTK.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLUM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET.

1H52.

REPRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE * CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE

1893.

4 Comparative Fatteni7i(j Qualities of Sheep,

maturity, we have sought to combine, with this more general
object, a comparison of the several breeds of sheep in these
respects ; — that is, as to their character as early fatteners, when
liberally supplied with good food.

We need not here recall special attention to the results given
so fully in our last report, as to the Hampshire and Sussex
breeds ; but, to assist the reader in his comparison of the several
breeds, we shall refer in passing to some of those results, as tlie
various points, elicited in the experiment with the Cotswolds,
come before our view. It is our wish, however, to give no bias
whatever in the matter, beyond that of the facts themselves ; and
we should prefer that those interested in the question should study
the figures a id other particulars for themselves, and come to their
own conclusions.

Neither is it necessary to our object to enter into any lengthened
historical account of the Cotswold breed. It will be sufficient to
say, on this head, that this long-woolled sheep is one of the
largest in the country — that it has the character of being hardy
and prolific, of having a considerable propensity to fatten, and
of coming early to maturity. It is said to be of a peculiarly
quiet disposition, a quality tending both to economy of food, and
t-o its character as a fattening sheep ; yet it has, nevertheless,
sometimes been said to consume a comparatively large amount of
food in relation to its weight. However this may be, this breed,
like many others, has certainly been much improved of late years ;
and it was our object to obtain animals for the purposes of our
experiment which should be good specimens of the modem breed.
With this view, we availed ourselves of the judgment of Mr.
William Game, of Aldsworth, Northleach, Gloucestershire,
whose name is well known as a prizeman for this breed, at the
shows of the Royal Agricultural Society of England.

We communicated to Mr. Game the object of our experiment,
and accordingly he selected for us 50 wether lambs in October
last. We were informed that they were not bred by himself,
and, both by their marks and the character of the animals, we
concluded that they came from at least two different flocks, some
three or four, perhaps, coming from a third ; at any rat«, the
whole seemed to be divisible into two lots about equal in number
— the one averaging four or five lbs. more per head than the
other. This fact is, however, for the purposes of the experiment,
perhaps rather desirable than otherwise, as giving a character not
so exclusively that of a single flock as might have been the case
had the ariimals been more strictly uniform.

In each lot, the relation of the lightest to the heaviest sheep
was about as three to four ; but this difference is not greater

(^mnftfiraUre Futt&nltuj Qualiflet< of Sliei^p. o

than was foand with the Hampehires ; and among the Sussex
sheep, which were judged to be so peculiarly pure and uniform,
the variation in weight was not much less.

The fifty Cotswold lambs travelled by railway to London,
whence they were driven to Bothamsted, a distance of 25 miles.
They arrived on October 16, 1851, and were allowed until the
24th to recover the effects of their journey, before being weighed.
They were then fed upon turnips, in the field, until Novem-
ber 21, when they were put upon the rafters in the shed, as had
been done with the Hampshire and Sussex sheep in the previous
season. On November 24 the Cotswolds were re-weighed and
marked ; and at this date, one of each of the two apparently
different lots, of equal weights, and about the average of the
whole in this respect, were selected to kill as stores, in order to
determine the proportion of carcass, &c., in the live weight in
that condition.

The description of foods selected was the same as for the
Hampshire and Sussex sheep, viz., oil-cake and clover chaff, as
dry foods, given in fixed quantities, acconling to the average
weight of the animals, and swedes, given ad libitum. The 48
Cotswold lambs were given these foods from November 24, when
first put upon the rafters ; and on December 1, when they had
become accustomed both to food and situation, they were
re-weighed, and the exact experiment was commenced; — the
quantities of the dry foods having been fixed according to the
average weight of the animals when first put upon the rafters,
viz., on November 24.

It had previously been decided not to include in the exact
experiment the preliminary week, in the new situation, and with
the new food ; though, as the result turned out, the animals during
this period gave much more than the average increase in live
weight ; indeed, on comparing the total result of the Cotswolds
under experiment with that of the Hampshire and Sussex Downs,
in which is included the first week of more than usual increase,
the relative gain per head of the Cotswolds will be understated
by about 6 lbs., owing to this slightly different arrangement of
the experiment.

In the previous experiments, the average weight per head of
the Sussex sheep when they were put up (Nov. 7, 1850), was
88 lbs. and that of the Hampshires 113| lbs. ; to the latter there
waa allotted 1 lb. of oil-cake and 1 lb. of clover chaff per head per
day ; and to the Sussex sheep quantities in exactly the same prcv
portion to their weight. The average weight per head of the
Cotswolds when put up was 113^ lbs., identical, therefore, with
that of the Hampshires ; and it was decided to give them the same

6 Comparative Fattening Qvulities of Sheep.

amount of dry food at the commencement, viz., 1 lb. per head per
day, of each, oil-cake and clover chaff ; and towards the conclusion
of the experiment, the allowance of oil-cake was increased by one
half, as it had been with the other breeds.

It will be observed that this experiment with the Cotswolds
was commenced 3 weeks later in the season than that with the
other breeds, there having been this delay in the hope of receiving
the new Oxfords. Notwithstanding this, however, it was also
closed 3 weeks earlier, the animals being already fully fit for the
butcher.

In Table I., p. 7, are given —

The weight of each sheep at the commencement of the experi-
ment, December 1, 1851 ;

The gain in weight of each animal during each period of 4
weeks of the experiment ;

The weight of wool, shorn March 22, 1852 ;

The increase of each animal (including wool) during the entire
period of the experiment ;

The final weights, both inclusive and exclusive of wool.

In the 12th column, the average weekly gain of each animal ;
and at the foot of the table, the total gain of the entire lot of
sheep between each period of weighing, their total wool, &c. ;
also the average weight per head at the commencement and
conclusion of the experiment, the average weekly gain per head
during each period, and the average weight of wool, shorn
March 22, 1852.

This Table (I.) brings prominently to our view the point to
which we have so often called attention, namely, the great varia-
tion in the rate of gain of the same animal during different conse-
cutive periods, and of different animals of the same breed, how-
ever carefully selected, and having ostensibly the same description
and quantities of food. This point we feel it is important
to insist upon so often, as showing the uselessness of com-
parative experiments on feeding, unless both conducted with a
large number of animals, and extended over a considerable
period of time, so as to eliminate, as far as possible, the effects
of the various sources of irregularity which we have before
pointed out.

It will be seen by the Table (I.) that for the first 12 weeks,
namely, up to February 23, the sheep were weighed only in re-
gular periods of 4 weeks each. In one week from this time,
namely, on March 1 , the allowance of oil-cake was increased from
1 lb. to li lb. per head per day. A fortnight later, namely, on
March 15, or 8 weeks after the last weighing, the animals were
weighed, and then washed preparatory to being shorn. In one

Comparative Fattening Qtmlitietf of Sfit*ep.

Table I.

Increase, dec, of each of the Cotswold Sheep.

Xflmben
of the

** S fi

•.4 o e

3 3

uol Shorn,
Mar. 22.

V = a ! «»o

lal Weight
thoutWooL

^"s .

s ^K

•-•

sis

|Sl5

|5*»l s»

|2l*

lb*. '

lbs.

Iba.

lbs.

Ibs-oz.

18s. oz.

lbs.

lbs. oz. lbs. oz.

lbs.

lbs.ot.

122

9 10

lU 10

66 10 ' 188 10

179

3 5

103

8 4

9 1

57 4 160 4

162

2 13

108

9 9

12 9

76 9 183 9

174

3 12

121 !

9 8

4 8

63 8 184 8

176

3 2

116

8 13

14 13

U5 13 181 13

173 1

3 4

134

10 0

8 0 !

60 0 ! 200 0

190

3 4

(IM)

(16)

(14)

(-3)

(8 0)

!
• •

■ •

. .

I
1

• •

114

13 12

12 12

60 12 ; 180 12

167

3 64

122

9 0

9 U

«0 0 182 0

173

3 0

121

10 7

16 7 '■

70 7 lUl 7

181

3 8

109 •

9 12

13 12 '

69 12 178 12

169 1

3 7

146

8 12

16 12 1

76 12 222 12

214 '

3 13

106

7 3

15 3 .

6H 3 170 3

109

3 64

108

8 0

16 0 ;

77 0 186 0

177 '

3 134

121 •

11 '

10 0

7 0

60 0 181 0 ,

171 ,

3 0

108 ,

16 '

9 0

12 0

69 0 177 0 !

168 :

3 7J

140

16 ,

11 12

72 12 212 12

201

3 10

109 <

16 '

9 0

9 0 i

68 0 177 0 !

168

3 6

129 i

11 '

8 8

7 H '

-6

37 H 166 8 1

158 ;

1 14

121 !

9 12

7 12 1

4H VJ 109 12 1

160

2 7

109 >

11 '

8 12

3 12 '

46 12 155 12

147 i

2 51

3 Si

123 '

17 '

9 3

6 8 i

70 3 ! 1»3 8 !

184 ,

127 '

11 1

15 1 '

80 1 207 1 1

196

4 0

109

9 5

8 5 1

58 5 1 162 5

153

2 10^

116

8 10

16 10

57 10 173 10

165

2 14

119 1

•11

9 2

17 2

76 2 ll»4 2

185

3 12

132

10 10

9 10

66 10 198 10 ,

188

3 6^

117

10 7

12 7

73 7 190 7

180

3 lOJ

133

9 12

5 12

53 12 188 12 ,

179

2 11

119

10 1

60 1 185 1

175

3 4|
2 I2J

129

8 0

50 0 178 0 :

170

128

10 1

7 1

65 1 193 1

183

3 4

133

11 9

0 9 >

43 9 176 9 !

165

2 2|

112

8 6

7 6

50 6 168 6 ,

160

2 13

112

8 8

16 8

72 8 184 8

176

3 10

121

9 8

11 8 '

59 8 180 8 1

171

2 154

(120)

(17)

(21)

(12)

(10 0)

killed '

• •

• • • •

• •

■ •

132

9 0

10 0 .

55 0 , 187 0 '

178 1

2 12

120

8 8

13 8 '

40 8 160 8 i

162 '

2 0\

108

8 18

10 13 !

60 13 ; 168 13 ,

160 j

3 0:

123

9 8

15 8 ,

66 8 191 8 :

182

3 5

112

9 6

9 5 !

60 5 172 5

163 1

8 0

103

8 2

5 2

63 2 , 168 2

160 ,

3 2

122

10 0

16 0

71 0 193 0

183

3 H

123

8 11

6 11

65 11 ' 188 11

180 1

3 4

130

11 2

72 2 202 2

191 1

3 V

128

9 2

6 2

49 2 177 2

168 •

2 7

112

10 0

89 0 201 0

191 !

4 7

ftUit. ,

Mil

663

584

617

435 12

484 12

578

2928 12 8439 12

8004 i

146 6|

Mn.per

Mn. per

Mn.per Mn. per

Mn. per,

Hewl

Head.

i{ea<l. Head.

Head. :

lba.ox.

lbs. OS.

lh«. OS.

lbs. oz.

lbs. oz. ' lbs. oz.

lbs. ;

lbs. 01.

imiir

ItlBftr i
Imdm r

119 IS

3 9{

3 2f

8 5i

9 74

2 10

> H

63 104 1 183 74

174 ;

3 3

1) Vol. ID and 47 w«i» kOJed u tUam ai the oonamenoemont ; and at ^os. 7 »nA ^^ ^^«A. ox -ww^m^ \iftV«%
cqadmfcMi o/tbe ^xptrimmit, their welghu an* not incIude-1 in the means or \n iXxe «Q>aaft^j\«»N.'\>»XJ«(k.

8 Comparative Faiteiiing Qualities of Sheep.

more week, that is on March 22, which was the date for the re-
gular monthly weighing, the animals were shorn ; and the wool
and sheep each separately weighed. From the last date to
April 17 constituted the next and final period, of 26 days only,
instead of 28, as previously, it being necessary thus to close the
experiment 2 days short of the regular monthly period, in order
to secure the Monday's Smithfield Market for those animals
which were to be sold alive.

At the foot of column 12 of the table, it is seen that the aver-
age weekly gain of weight per head of the entire lot of sheep,
during the 20 weeks of the experiment, is 3 lbs. 2^ ozs.

We need not, perhaps, make further comment upon this table
of details excepting to note in explanation of it, that one of the
sheep, namely, No. 7, became unwell after being washed, and
died by scouring shortly afterwards ; and another, No. 38, was
"killed to save its life," not long after being shorn. In the tables
which follow, therefore, the particulars only of the 46 remaining
sheep will be given. As to the construction of these tables we need
not enter into any explanation in this place, having called par-
ticular attention to this point in our former paper ; and, indeed,
we have endeavoured so to arrange them, as that they should
afford a sufficient explanation for themselves. As to their results,
too, we shall go less into detail than in the former paper, espe-
cially as we shall have, to some extent, to reconsider the whole
when the experiments with other breeds are completed.

In the six following tables are given : —

In Table II. the total food consumed, and total increase in live
weight produced between each weighing, &c.

In Table III. the quantities of food ccmsumed during each single
period and the total period of the experiment, to produce 100 lbs.
increase in live weight.

In Table IV. the food consumed per head weekly.

In Table V. the food consumed per 100 lbs. live weight weekly.

In Table VI. the average increase in weight per head weekly.

In Table VII. the average increase upon each 100 lbs. live weight
weekly.

Coinparaiive Faitenituf QHaliiiea of Sheep,

Tabli II.

Showing the Description and Quantities of Food consumed, and Increase produced,
by 46 CoUwold Sheep, between each interval of Weighing.

Periods.

T<eni^h
of Time.

Oilcake.

lbs.
1288
1288
1288
1771
1794

CloTer Hay.

Swedes.

Incroaiie in
Live Weight.

From Dee. 1 to Dec 20
^ „ 29 to Jan. 2(1
„ Jan. 26 lo Feb. 23
.. Feb. 23 to Mar. 22
„ Mar. 22 to Apr. 17

Weeks.

lbs.
1288
1288
1288
1288
1196

Ibd.
18,461
17,602
22,701
21.493
23,935

lbs. ozfl.
665 U
584 0
617 0
484 12
578 0

Total food and increase^
of 46 Cotswold sheep ^
in 20 weeks J

Aremge food consumed "1
and increase produced S
bT46 sheepin 4 weeks J

20 ; 7429

6348

101,192 2928 12

• ■ •

1485 8

1269-6

20.838-4 1 585 12

Table III.

Showing the Quant'ties of Food consumed during each period to produce 100 lbs.

Increase in Live Weight by Cotswold Sheep.

Periods.

Length
iof Time.

From Dec. 1 to Dec. 29 .

„ 29 to Jan. 26 .

„ Jan. 26 to Feb. 23 .

,. Feb. 23 to Mar. 22 .

„ Mar. 22 to Apr. 17 .

Weeks.
4

4
4
4
4

Oilcake, i Clover Hay. ; Swedes.

lbs.

0Z5I.

lbs.

OZR.

Ihh.

193

2776

220

3014

208

3679

365

265

4433

810

206

4141

Arerage for the entire period 1 i ^n
of Uie experiment . j

253 10^ ' 216 12

3o57j

Table IV.

Showing the average Weekly Consumption of Food per Head for each period of

the experiment.

Periods.

Length

of Time.

From Dec. 1 to Dec. 29

„ 29 to Jan. 26

,. Jan. 26 to Feb. 23

., Feb. 23 t« Mar. 22

n Mar.22to Apr. 17

Arertge per week for the entire
period of the experiment

Weeks.

}

(20)

Oilcake. Clover Hay. SwedcH.

lbs.
7

7
7
9
9

OSrt.
U

lbs.
7
7

7
7
6

oz?.
0
0
0
0
8

IbM.
100

95
123
116
13J

oz*.

5
10

6
13

ui^

113

Cuinparatire FatteniHg QnnUiles of Slteep,

Table V.

Showiog the average Weelily ConsnmptioQ of Fo^, per 100 lb*. Live Weight of

Animal, for each period of the ExperimeDt.

Periods.

From Dec. 1 to Dec. 2P .
,« 29 to Jan. 26 .
Jan. 26 to Feb. 23 .
Feb. 23 to Mar. 22 .
„ Mar. 22 to Apr. 17 .

Length
of Time.

4
4

4
4
4

Average per week for the entire \ ! ,^0^
period of the experiment / ^

OUcake.

WeekEL '' Ibfl. oss.

5
4
4
5
5

\^\
8J

13
8

ft}

CloTcr Hay.

lbs. osa.

4
4
4
3

lOf

Swedes.

lb*.

OBH.

16f

74 11

Tablk VI.

Sliowing the average Weekly Increase per Head during each period

of the Experiment.

Periods.

From Dec. 1 to Dec. 29 .
„ 29 to Jan. 26 .
Jan. 26 to Feb. 23 .
Feb. 23 to Mar. 22.
Mar. 22 to Apr. 17 .

»>

»i

Lengtii
of Time.

Weeks.
4
4
4

4
4

Average per week for the entire \^
period of the experiment J

(20)

Cotswold
Sheep.

lbs. ozs.

3
3
3
2
3

9f
2|

10
2

Table VII.

Showing the average Weekly Increase per 1 00 lbs. Live Weight for each period

of the Experiment.

Periods.

From Deo. 1 to Dec. 29 .
„ „ 29 to Jvm 26 .
„ Jan. 26 to Feb. 23 .
„ Feb. 23 to Mar. 22 .
„ Mar. 22 to Apr. 17 .

Avers^ per week for the entire \
period of the experiment /

Len^h

CotKWold

of Time.

Sheep.

Weeks.

lbs.

oss.

l^i

1 *

\2\

(20)

An inspection of Tables II. and IV. will show that, as in the

case of the Hampshire and Sussex sheep, the Cotswolde con-

samed more food as they increased in sivx^ ^wi N<ie.\!gjit \ but

Comparaiive Fattening Qualities of Sheep, 11

Table V., which gives the consumption per 100 lbs. live treighty
shows that there is no decided either progressive increase or
diminution of consumption to a given weight of animal^ which can
be clearly referred to the state of progress of the animal. On
the other hand, the fluctuations in this respect would seem to be
more probably connected with the state of the weather and of the
animals in relation to it. Consistently with this idea, and also
with the result of the experiments with the Hampshire and
Sussex sheep, we have the consumption in relation to a given
live weight most increased at the time when the animals lost
the protection of their wool.

Table III. shows that as the experiment proceeded a larger
amount of food was required to yield a given amount of increase
in live weight. This was also the case with the Hampshire and
Sussex sheep. Our experiments on the composition of animals
in various stages of fatness lead us to believe, however, that this
seeming diminished effect of the food as the animal progresses to
maturity is perhaps more apparent than real ; for as the animal
ripens, the increase is found to be much less aqueous than during
the earlier periods of growth. Hence it may be that there is as
great, if not even greater, deposition of real solid substance from
a given amount of food as maturity is approached, though the
proportion of the gross live weight may be less.

It is not improbable, however, that some portion botli of the
actual increased consumption and of the lessened relation of
increase to it, as the experiment proceeded, might be due to some
depreciation in the nutritive quality of the turnips as the season
advanced.

From Table VI. we learn that the average increase in live
weight, per head, of the 46 Cotswolds, during the 20 weeks of
the experiment, was 3 lbs. 3 ozs. That of the Hampshires
during the entire period of the experiment was, however, only
2 lbs. 10| ozs., and that of the Sussex sheep only 2 lbs. 0^ oz.

Again, in Table VII. we see that the average weekly increase
per 100 lbs. live weight was with these Cotswolds 2 lbs. 1| oz. ;
that of the Hampshire was 1 lb. 12| ozs. ; and that of the Sussex
sheep, 1 lb. 12^ ozs.

The following is a short tabulated summary, bringing to view
the comparative results of the three breeds, in regard to some of
the points given for the Cotswolds, more in detail in the pre-
ceding Table.

Comparative FaUening QitaUdet of Skeep,

TABIi VIII.

Summsrj of reaalti of CotawoU, Hampshire, and SDsaex Sheep.

WpQklj.

la Wri«l.l

1 Vi

Ill

• If

Cotmld .

Ihi- lbs- ■ Ibl
919{ 3J«! aiOT)

I8H son saoBj
!97i sflst snasj

H u e Hi

lbs. ai.
77 1!)

6 41 1 gj

Ibn 01
71 lf>i

llM. 01.

s oi

IbfLOI.

1 i)

11!J
I 1!1

From Division 1 of this summary we learn that the Cotswolds
consamed the least food to produce a given amount of increase
in live weight, and the Sussex sheep the most.

From Division 2 we see that the Cotswolds consumed the
largest amount of food per head, weekly ; and the Sussex sheep
the least.

In Division 3 are given the quantities of food, tnf As /re«A state,
consumed per 100 lbs. live tceight weekly, by the several breeds ;
and there is some general uniformity observable in the amount
consumed to a given weight of animal by the difierent breeds.
But when the quantities of the respective foods are calculated
each to their contents of dr;/ giibda-nce, it is found that the total
quantity consumed to a given weight of animal, within a given
time, i* all but ai'solutely identical for tlie three breeds.

Lastly, in Divisions 4 and 5 respectively we see that the
average weekly gain in live weight, whether calculated per head
or per 100 lbs. live weight, is greatest with the Cotswolds, and
least with the Sussex sheep.

We would here call attention to the fact, that the increase in
weight, per 100 Ibf. iceekhj, though greatest with the Cotswolds,
is even with them very little more than 2 lbs., that is, 2 per
cent.

The next point is as to the quantity of wool shorn from the
Cotswold sheep. By reference to Table I. it will be seen that
the date of shearing was March 22nd, and we have there giren
the amount of wool taken irom each animal separately, and the
^taJ amoant from the 48 Cotswolds, In Table IX., which
^ihwB, we h&ve given the average qaantvtj oi "woo\ ;AA»ksai ^be

Comparative Faitenmg Qualities of Slieep.

head, and per 100 lbs. live weight, of the whole lot of Cotswolds ;
and for the convenience of comparison we have added the same
particulars relating to the Hampshire and Sussex sheep.

Table IX.

Wool fihorn from Cotswolds, \
M-irch 22, 1862 . . /

Wool sboro from Uampsbires, \
March 27, 1861 . . . /

WoqI shorn from Sussex, 1
March 27, 1861 . . . /

Average

Wool
per Head.

Iba. OZ5.

9 7i

6 4

6 10

Proportion of
Wool to UiO lbs.

Live Weight

of Animal ut the

Time of

beinK Shorn.

6-64

377*

467

From this Table it appears that the long-wooUed Cotswold
sheep gave more than half as much again wool per liead as either
the Hampshire or Sussex sheep. The Cotswold, again, gave 5^
per cent, of wool upon its live weight ; the Hampshire giving
only 3f per cent., and the Sussex sheep 4^ per cent.

We now come to the question of the character of the Cotswold
sheep, as w^a^-producers. It will be remembered, that in the
case of the Hampshire and Sussex sheep, out of the 40 of each
breed, the 4 which had increased most, the 4 that had increased
least, and the 8 of medium increase, were killed at home ; the
weights of the carcasses and of all the viscera being taken sepa-
rately, and the carcasses sold at Newgate Market ; and the 8 of
next larger, and the 8 of next smaller increase, were sold alive
at Smithfield. With the Cotswolds a similar plan was adopted.
Thus, of the 46 sheep, the 5 of most, the 5 of least, and the 10
of medium increase, were killed at home ; the weight of all the
parts separately taken, and the carcasses sent to Newgate Market.
The 10 of next larger, and the 10 of next smaller increase, were
sold alive at Smithfield, and the remaining 6 were kept to be fed
till Christmas. The only exception to this arrangement was,
that 2 of the animals thus allotted by their increase in weight to
be kept till Christmas, were exchanged for 2 of the others of
about equal weight, but which were less ripe and more adapted
for feeding on, than the 2 in question.

The following summary of average qualities within each set as
thus allotted, will show how far the method of selection adopted
was calculated to yield a fair average of qualities in the ros^tive
hts: —

Comparative Fattening Qtialities of Sheep,

Tablr X.

Mean of the 20 killed at ^

home . . • . /

Mean of the 20 sold alive

Mean of the 6 to be kept 1

till Christmas . . j

Mean of the 46 Sheep .

Average IncrcMe

per Head,
including Wool.

lbs.
63
66
61

0Z8.

Arerage Wool

per Head

(Shorn Mar. 2S).

Iba. osa.

9 2}

9 12

9 8^

63 10.^

Arerage

Average Final
LKJC. J, iwi. ^thout Wool.

lbs. OS8.

173 lOj

174 11}
172 13}

lb&
119
119
121

0Z8.

12}
6J

119 13

174 0

In the next Table (No. XI.) are given at one view, some of the
main particulars whilst alive, of the animals to be killed at home,
by the side of those ascertained on killing them.

In this Table we find with these Cotewolds, that there was
some degree of uniformity as to rate of increase in weight within
each of the three lots, drawn out for killing ; though comparing
lot with lot, we see that the 5 of largest increase gave an
average actual increase nearly double that of the 5 of smallest
increase. On the other hand, as shown in the summary, the
average increase per head of the 10 of medium increase, of the
whole 20 killed, and of the whole 46 sheep fed under expe-
riment, was very nearly equal. This was also the case with the
Hampshire and Sussex sheep ; and as with them, we find also
with the Cotswolds, that those animals thus brought together
within each lot as having increased in weight at nearly equal
rates, had few other qualities in common.

Thus, turning to the column of the amount of wool given by
the Cotswolds, we see, that although the average of any one lot
does not diflfer much from that of either of the others, or of the
whole 46 sheep, yet the amount obtained from the difierent
individual sheep is almost equally variable among those of the
largest, those of the smallest, and those of the medium rate of
increase, respectively.

In the column of carca^s-^weight, we see that the 5 sheep which
increased most, gave on April 19th, when therefore they were
little more than a year old, an average of 113 lbs. 15 oz., or
14 stones and nearly 2 lbs. (8 lbs. per stone). The 5 of smallest
increase gave at the same time an average of 90J lbs. carcass,
equal to 11 stone 2| lbs. ; and the 10 of medium increase gave
an average of 99 lbs. 6 oz. carcass, or nearly 12^ stones. The
average carcass weight of the whole 20 killed was 101 lbs., or
J 3 stone 5 lbs. ; this is exactly the weight to which the Hanip-
sbires bad been brought in the previous aea^oxv hy May 8, after

Comparatire FaHemn<j Qucdiiies of Sheep.

ir.

26 weeks of experiment ; and tlie average weight of the Sussex
carcoESes at the same date was 9 stone 6 lbs.

The next two columns of Table XI, show the proportion of
carcass to live weight. In the first, it is calculated upon the wn-
fested live-weight, and in the second upon the fasted. It is
worthy of remark, that whichever basis of calculation is taken,
the Cotswolda are found to have given a larger percentage of

carcass
Table XI.

WHIU&TS ALIVK,

WElliHTS DEAD.

s| sp if^ III

li III 111 m

mallmo. (

«1 Oi' » li 111 19]| 171 101 lU

1 G Comparative Fatieiihig Qualities of Sheep,

carcass weight than either the Hampshire or Sussex sheep of the
previous experiment ; both of these, however, as has already been
stated, were put earlier in the season upon the fatting food than
the Cotswolds, and were kept upon it later.

These long-woolled sheep were, indeed, very fully ready for
the butcher. They very remarkably, too, manifested the charac-
teristics of the white-faced, long-woolled sheep, as contrasted
with the black-faced Down. Thus, although, as we have stated,
their proportion of carcass was greater, and the carcasses them-
selves were much fatter than in the case of either of the other
breeds, yet the kidneys of these Cotswolds were by no means
well made up. The rumps, and saddle generally, and breast,
were, however, too fat ; indeed, the fat was chiefly accumulated
outside the frame instead of inside, as is more the case with the
Downs : there was, too, a deficiency of lean in the Cotswold
can^sses. Some of the rumps and breasts were extraordinarily
fat, especially of the 5 animals which had given the greatest
increase. The 10 of medium increase were the best made up on
the kidneys, and had also the best distribution of lean. The
5 of least increase were the whitest and most delicate ; they
were in every way less fat ; they had altogether less of the
character of the fat long-woolled sheep, and would well have
borne to be fed a little longer. On the other hand, the carcasses
of the 5 sheep of largest increase were much coarser in appear-
ance, and the surface was much more streaky and vascular.

It may be remarked, that there is no clearly evident connexion
between rapidity of fattening and the proportion of carcass.
There is nearly equal variation in regard to proportion of carcass
weight, among the animals of greatest, of least, and of medium
increase respectively.

As to the actual proportion of dead or carcass weight to live
weight, in these early ripened sheep, we may observe that
57" 14 per cent, of carcass is equal to a stone of 8 lbs. dead for a
stone of 14 lbs. alive, and that the average proportion of carcase
of each lot of these sheep is higher than this. Thus, taking tlie
calculations upon the gross, or unfasted, live weight, the 5
animals of largest increase gave an average proportion of carcass
of 5914 per cent., the 5 of smallest increase of 57*4 per cent.,
and the 10 of medium increase 57*8 per cent. The average of
the whole 20 killed is 580 per cent. The 5 animals of largest
increase, which gave such a large actual vevjht of carcass, and
apon the whole, the heaviest proportion of carcass, were never-
theless deficient in kidney and inside fat generally.

Looking to the column of loose, or caul and gut fat, we see

that the average proportion of it in 100 of the fasted live weight

of the 20 Cofswolds was 5*2. In the Hampshire and Sussex

sheep it was more tJian 7 per cent. T\\eTDk\Ae v\vo^% also that

Comparative Faitenhig Qualities of Slieep, 17

the animals of largest iucrease, and which were the fattest, es-
pecially on the oatside of the frame, gave on the average the
least proportion of inside or loose fat. The 10 sheep of medium
increase gave upon the whole the largest proportion of loose fat ;
though, owing to a large amount in 2 of the animals of smallest
increase, the mean of these is higher than that of the former.

In fact, the more the original character of the large, rapidly
growing Cotswold sheep prevailed, the greater was the propor-
tion of fat on the outside of the carcass, and the coarser was the
mutton. On the other hand, the quality was the best the less
there was of tendency to excessive fat on the carcass, and the
greater the proportion on the kidneys, and of inside fat generally.

It has been well said, that the Cotswold is not so much the
butcher's, or gentleman's, as the poor man's sheep — supplying as
it does, when sold as meat, a small proportion of bone and a
large proportion of fat — but yielding to the butcher comparatively
little profit in the shape of tallow-cake and loose fat. Whether or
not the Cotswold is the fanner^ s sheep is, however, a question to
which no unconditional answer can be given. This must depend
upon many local circumstances, such as the character of the
land, and of the farming adopted, and also the character of the
demand. As to the question of demand, it is probable that
wherever quality of mutton has much influence on its price, and
this rather than quantity is most sought after, the Cotswold and
other white-faced sheep will, other things being equal, not be so
profitable as their character as rapid and early fatteners, upon a
given amount of food, would, at first sight, lead us to suppose.
But we shall recur to the question of price further on.

As in the case of the Hampshire and Sussex sheep (and of
most animals which have been killed at home after having been
fed under experiment, and, indeed, of others also) we have, as
already stated, taken the weights of all the separate internal
parts, or " offal," of the 20 Cotswold sheep. We reserve, how-
ever, any further points connected with this subject until we have
an opportunity of considering all the facts which we have collected
relating to it. Indeed it would be out of place to go into them
at any length just now.

We have found, then, by an examination of the particulars of
the dead weights of the Cotswold sheep, that they gave a heavier
carcass in a given time than either the Hampshire or Sussex
sheep — a somewhat heavier proportion of carcass to live weight —
a considerably less proportion of loose or inside fat, but a con-
siderably larger amount of fat on the outside of the frame.

We now come to the question of the money result of this
experiment upon the fattening qualities of the Cotswold sheep.

As already stated, the experiment was concluded otv K?5inVVl\\i.^
and the whole of the sheep were weighed on tYiat i\ws . 'Y^^wVs

Comparative Fattenitig Qualities of Sheep.

were sent off alive in carts the next evening for the Monday
morning's Smithfield market of April 19th. On the same
day, the 20 allotted for killing at home were slaughtered ;
their carcasses were sold at Newgate Market on the 21st, and
their offal was sold at home. The particulars of these sales are
given in the following Table. No estimate is this time made
for the (six) sheep to be fed till Christmas, the statement being
confined to the 40 sheep actually sold.

Tablb XTI.
Produce of Sale of the Cotswolds.

Weight in lbs.

1
Produce of
Sale.

20 carcasies, at 2«. lOd, per stone of 8 lbs. .

Wool, at 12Jd. per lb

Skins, at Sd, each

Heads and plucks, at \a. Zd.,

Loose fat, at 1«. lid. per stone of 8 lbs.

Killing, at Sd., IZs. id. ; Selling and 1
Charges at Newgate Market, 20s. 6d. [

Net for the 20 sheep sold dead

Net per head for the 20 sheep sold d«ad

lbs. OS.
1968 0
183 7

• • •

172 0

£.

84
9
0

1
2

48
1

7
13

• • •

• • •
« • •

7*
10

20 sheep, sold alive, at ZSs. per head .

Wool, at 12jrf. per lb

Selling and charges ....
Net for 20 sheep sold alive ....
Net average per head for 20 sheep sold slive

• • •

195 2

• • •

• • •
1

36
10

0
8

0
3

46
0

3
13

SrUHART.

20 Sheep, sold dead .
20 Sheep, sold alive .

£. «.

46 13

. 45 9

d,
11

Total

. 92 3

Average per head for the 40 sheep

. £2 6

It is seen by this Table of the produce of sale that the carcasses

of the Cotswolds, sold dead, fetched 2$. lOd. per stone at Newgate

Market The net return per head of the sheep Eold alive was

about Is, 3d. leas than for thof^e aold deeyd. kxid \f yre reckon

^e average weight of the carcassea at aWttX^ «Jaw^ VI 5i^«a«^

Comparative FuMenvfig QualUies of Sheep. 19

this would reduce the price per stone of the carcasses of the
sheep sold alive by a little more than Id. below that of those sold
dead, that is, to about 2$. 9d.

So fluctuating are the markets that it would of course be im-
possible to institute any exact comparison as to the produce of
sale of the Cotswolds with that of the Hampshire and Sussex
sheep without first comparing the state of the market at the dif-
ferent times of sale. We shall defer, however, any full con-
sideration of the subject in this point of view until we have
completed our experiments with other breeds. In the meantime,
however, we subjoin a balance-sheet of the experiments with the
Cotswolds in the same form as given for the Hampshire and
Sussex Downs ; but for the reasons stated above we shall not, on
this occasion, go into a full consideration of its bearings ; nor
need we here repeat our explanation of the plan and object
of a balance-sheet in the particular form adopted ; in which, as
will be seen, we have only the cost of the lambs and of their dry
or marketable food on the one side, set against the net produce of
sale of the fat sheep and their wool on the other.

Table XIII.

Balance Sheet of the Cotswolds.

CoNt of 40 Cotswold wether lamhs, at 33«. Zd.
They consumed, of purchased food, —

6460 lbs. of oilcake, at 6/. I6s. per ton .

6520 lbs. of clover hay, at 4/. per ton .

Total of purchased food .

40 fat Cotswolds, sold April, 1852 (with wool)

Difference . . . | . i 3 12 10

After the remarks above, introducing this balance-sheet, we
need only here say, in explanation, that, as before in estimating
the cost of the lambs at the commencement of the experiment,
M. per head per week is charged for their board up to that time ;
and we may add, that (so far to aid the comparison) the oilcake
and clover-chaflF are charged exactly at the same rates as for the
Hampshire and Sussex sheep, regardless of any fluctuations in
the cost of those articles.

It may also be noticed that the market in which these Cots-
wolds were sold was quoted as *' exceedingly heavy " ; and it will
be observed that the increase of the fat sheep with their wool did
not cover the cost of the dry foods by about 3/. ISs., instead of
within 68. or 7«., as was the case with the Hampshire and Sussex
sheep. These, however, were also sold in a bad market.

We have only now to add a general tabu\ate>d ^ututcv^^t^ ^ ^"tov^
Mt one view the results embodied in detail in t\ve ipt^^3L\Xk%'\:^\fc^

£. 1. d. !

•

£. t.
66 10

d.
0

19 9 3J
9 17 If I

• •

29 6

. •

95 16
92 3

20 Comparative FatUning Qualities of ISIvmji.

of tliu paper ; and for the convenience of comparison we have,

where it seemed nseful, placed by their side the particulars of the

Hsmpaliire and Sassex sheep on the same points.

Table XIV.

Qehbral StmsAKT.

PABTICHI-Mia -(CoUwnM ahsep.}

Jiymttt might pa bad wbu put ap, D«. ... .
ATflnn Wright pv hoid when fu (indailiiu wtn]
TdUI iDcnajw In ndgbtof Uibeep(CMiWii '

■ ■ ■ IswMH
{OUokc

9 »\Mep. iborn Karoh i

I or tbe t iBrptit ] WelghUtikoiBEhoitie
A«™g= ^'', ■ •null-,- Weight. iUo»«l by

cucu -I ini-™^ L Weight! allDwai hj

^™h« uiuoMo . I butcher

Proportion of <»T«B (Midi in f « ['^/.^liSS

(01 thfilvrat

PrapDrtioD of wew (ooldj in I ?! i!!* L"™'!f"

lOD lb* of the tul«l inilght . , """iiioinallmr

(of theaOktUxl

A>in» valgbl of ]«w fit pn- ' 9JjS''™f"r"
( (ir IhB ia Irtflert

sTw

BU-M
£6-83

»?■«»

M1S3

M-7!

S7-M

W7.

saM

Zfj

SS:f?

S»-3»
SMS

1*W

fl1.»l

00^3

»M1

•Mt

Ibs-o..

■I

19 IS

'!!

14B«

nvu

8 1H

U Ij

»1S

'««»

10711

|S>|||3

Cuinimrative Fattenhiy Qualities of Sheep,

PARTICULARS <Cot«woM Sheep).

I Of the i largest
I Of the so kiUed

Prieeoftbecwx»Mperetoneof81be.|^^'J|J^® I

tirai Dooej reCam per bead of the SO Gotswcrids )
nU deed ( without wool) . . . . )

^niei mooex return per head of the 80 Cotswolds )
nidMliTe (without wool) ....)'

^^^n^ Ttlne of wool per her head
Priwofwoolperlb

Actual Results of
Experiments.

Cotswold. - Hants. Sussex.

4-67
5-08
6*53

5-18

i. d.

S 10

S7 \\ .

S6 0

9 K

1 (H,

6fr4
734
7-24

7-09

t. d.

3 9
8 3

7-08
717
7-46

7-29

$. d.

3 0
3 44

7 (4
1 li

6 64
1 3

e o o

If:

14310 I 164*9S
144*49 I 14114
130-93 IS4-7S

186*87 ! 140*78

97-06
114-70

105*88
119-lS

73-84
108-00

67-67
IISHU)

llKPBI^rrEI) by

MPOTTI8WOOPK AND ro., \EW-:<TItEn h^CVRlt

L«>NI)ON

OK THE

COMPOSITION OF FOODS

IK RELATION TO

RESPIRATION

AND THE

FEEDING OF ANIMALS.

By J. B. LAWBS, Esq.,

Of Bethamtted ;
ADD

J. H. GILBEET, Ph.D., F.C.S.

[From the RBPOBT OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOB THE ADVANCEMENT OF

Science /<>r 1852.]

LONDON :

PBINTBD BY TAYLOB ft PBANCIS, BED LION COCTBT, FLEET STREET,

1858.

BK-PaiNTBD BY DUNK ft CHIDOBY, 165-7, KING8I4AND BOAD, N.B.

1889

Oh the Cofnposition of FaadSy in relation to Respiration and the Feeding
df Animals. By J. B. Lawes, Esq.^ of Rothameted; and J. H.
Gilbert, Fh.D.,F.C.S.

DrRixG the last twelve years our knowledge of the adaptation of food,
according to its composition, to the various exigencies of the animal system,
has assumed much of definiteness ; and it is to the experiments and writings
of MM. Boussingault, Liebig, and Dumas, that we must attribute, either
directly or indirectly, much of the progress that has been made. There are,
however, connected with this important subject still many open questions ;
and it is with the hope of aiding the solution of one or two of these, and thus
providing a new starting-point for further inquiry, that we propose in the
present paper to bring forward some results of our own which bear upon
them, and to point out the conclusions to which they appear to us to lead.

The writers to whom we have above referred, as well as many others,
whether themselves experimenters or more systematic writers on the subject
ftf the chemistry of food, may, with few exceptions, and with some limita-
iioD8, be said to agree on two main points, viz. on the one hand, as to the
connection of the nitrogenous constituents of the food, with the formation in
the animal body of compounds containing nitrogen, and with the exercise of
force ; and on the other, as to the general relationship of the ;ww-nitrogenous
ccngtitnents of the food with respiration, and with the deposition of animal
fat. It is indeed upon the assumption of this broad and fundamental classi-
fimion of the constituents of food, according to their varied offices in the
animal economy, that a vast series of analyses of foods have of late years
been made and pubhshed ; whilst, founded upon the results of these analyses
nnmerous tables have been constructed, professing to arrange the current
articles of diet both of man and other animals, according to their comparative
l^hieg as such. Among the labourers in this field of inquiry, we are much
indebted to MM. Liebig, Dumas, Boussingault, Payen, rlayfair, R. 1).
Thomson, Horsford, Schlossberger and Kemp, and others.

When speaking generally then, of the various requirements of the animal
organism, the more special adaptations of the several proximate compounds
uid ultimate elements of which our v^etable and animal aliments are made
1^), are, as we have already said, fully admitted ; but in attempting to apply to
Practice the principles herein involved, by the construction of tables of the
wniparative value of foods, it seems to have been generally assumed, that our
^rrent food-stuffs are thus measurable rather by their flesh-forming than by
their more specially respiratory and fat-forming capacities. Hence, with
*ni€ limitations, the per-centage of nitrogen has always been taken as the
s^dard of comparison.

Pounded upon their per-centage of nitrogen, M. Boussingault first arranged
^bleg of the comparative values of different articles of food, chiefly in refer-
^ceto the dieting of the animals of the farm ; and with this method Professor
'liebig has expr^sed his concurrence. At page 869 of the 3rd edition of his
^"iemical Letters, he says — ** The admirable experiments of Boussingault
pfove, that the increase in the weight of the body in the fattening or feeing
^ stock (just as is the case with the supply of milk obtained from milch
^^), is in proportion to the amount of plastic constituents in the daily
"Jpply of fodder." And at page 849 of the same, speaking of the nitrogenous
'^nipounds of food, he says—" It is found that animals require for their
'^ort less of any vegetable food in proportion as it is richer in these
I*cnliar matters, and cannot be nourished by vegetables in which these
■^^tten are abseDfc."

mJ^^^ nuum&', van'ooB specimeDB of flour and of \)Tea8L\vw^\5ftfc^«rc»xv'\j^
*^A A D. Thomson ; other articleB of vegetable diet lojULt.^oTsH^^N^w

a large series of aliments from the animal kingdom by MM. Schlossberger
and Kemp. Dr. Anderson also, in his valuable Report on the Composition of
Turnips, grown under different circumstances and in different localities, has
taken their per-centage of nitrogen as the measure of their comparitive feed-
ing value.

The views which have thus led to a vast number of analyses of foods, as
well as the information supplied by the analyses themselves, have contributed
much to the advancement of our knowledge of the chemistry of food. It has
however been found, that the indications of tables of the comparitive values
of foods, founded on the per-centages of proteine compounds, were frequently
discrepant with those which common usage or direct experiment affords.
These discrepancies have not escaped the attention of the authors of the theo-
retical tables ; but they have attributed them rather to the erroneous teachings
of common practice or experiments on feeding, than to any defect in the theo-
retical method of estimation. On all hands, however, it has been admitted,
that further direct experiment bearing upon this important subject was much
needed ; and it is the acknowledgement of this necessity that seems to justify
the publication, under the auspices of the British Association, of the results of
this kind which we have now to submit.

The (juestion to which we shall first call attention, is, whether, in the use
of our current foods, under ordinary circumstances, but especially in the case
of animals fattening for the butcher, the amount of food consumed^ and that
of increase prodw^d^ have a closer relationship to the supplies in such foods
of the nitrof/enonJi, or of the ;w/i-nitrogeuous constituents ? That is to say,
whether the sum of the requirements of the animal system is such, that, m
ordinary circumstances, and in the use of ordinary articles of food, the
measure of the amount taken ^ or of the imrease prodivcM, will be regulated
more by the supplies of the " Plastic," or of the more peculiarly respiratory and
fat-forming constituents. According to the views upon which all the tables
of the comparative values of foods are constructed, it is the supplies of the
plastic elements of food cliiefly, that sh' aild regulate both the consumption,
and the increase in weight, of a fattening animal. If, however, we bear in
mind the views which are generally entertained as to the influence of respi-
ration on the demands of the system for the oxidizable elements of food, it
would appear more consistent to sup|X)se that the measure, at least of the con-
sumption of food, would be chiefly regulated by its supplies of those elements.

In the experiments to which we shall call attention, sheep and pigs have
been the subjects. As, however, their object has partly been the solution of
certain questions of a more purely agricultural character than those now
under consideration, the details, as to the selection of the animals, and the
general management of the experiments, will be given more appropriat^ely in
another place. Indeed, the pirticulars of some of the exj)eriment8 with
sheep, so far as their agricultuml bearings are concerned, have already ap-
peared in the Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society of England ; and
those of the rest, and also of the expriments with pigs, will probably do bo
shortly. It should here be stated, however, that the general plan has been
to select several different descriptions of food, containing respectively various
amounts of nitrogenous and non -nitrogenous constituents, the proportions of
which were ascertained by analysis. To one or more sets of animals to be
compred, a fixed and limited amount of food of a high or of a low per-oentage
of nitrogen, as the case might be, was allotted, and they were then allowed to
take ad libitum of another or complementary food. In this way, in obedience
to the Instinctive demands of the system, the animals were enabled to fix for
*bem8elve3f according to the composition oi tYieT^^^\.vi^\Q0^\k'^<\5iantit^
oaoh class o/ constituents which they reqait^.

In the taUes which follow, the results of the experiments are arranged to
show —

Ist. The amounts respectively of the nitrogenous and the /?(m-nitrogenous
oonstitnents consumed weekly per 100 Ihs. live weight of animal.

tnA, The amounts consumed of each of these classes of constituents to
produce 100 lbs, increase in live weight.

Summary tables of the results of the analyses of the foods are also given.

In the tables showing the amounts of the constituents consumed, &c. — the
weights of the animals themselves — of the foods consumed — and their per cent-
sges, of dry matter, of ash, and of nitrogen — have formed tlie l^asis f f the
calculations. Thus, the column of nitrogenous substances a)nsumed, is
obtained bv multiplying the amount of nitrogen bv 6*3, on the assumption
that they all exist as proteine compounds. This method of estimation will, we
think, be found suflBcient for our present purpose ; though, as we shall have
cccasion to point out further on, it is frequently far from accurate, and
especially when applied to succulent vegetable substances.

The amounts of wi^/i-nitrogenous constituents are obtained by deducting
those of the mineral and nitrogenous constituents from the amount of the
total dry matter consumed.

In the tables showing the amounts of the respective constituents consumed
by a given weight of animal within a given time, it is their mpan v:eights that
are ts^en for the calculation ; namely, those obtained by adding together their
weights at the conmiencement and at the conclusion of the experiment, and
dividing by 2.

In the tables showing the constituents consumed to produce a ijiveji weiglU
of increase^ the figures are obtained hj simple rule of three ; taking as the
donents of calculation, the consumption during the total period of the ex-
periment, and the total increase in weight during the same period.

With these short explanations we may now introduce the tables them-
Klves.

Tablb I.

Summary Table of the Per-centage Composition of the Sheep Foods.

Foods eaten by Serins 1.

OcKripdon of Food.

Swedish Turnips, No. 1.
Swedish Turnips, No. 2.

American Oil-<»ke

Cats

CloTer Chifcff

Oatstnw Chaff

Mean Per-centage RcHults.

Dry Matter.

InclasiTe
uf Ash.

10-58
12-12
89-50
85-18
78-61
81-28

ExclofllTe
of Ash.

In Fresh
Substance.

1000
11-49
84-08
82-24
7233
74-86

Ash.

0-677

0-632

6-42

2-94

6-28

6-42

In Dry
Matter.

Ill Fresh
Sub:>tance.i

6-46
6-21
606
3-45
7-99
7-87

Nitrogen.

In Dry
Matter.

0-263

0-151

6-08

2-08

1-85

2-49
1-25
6-68
2-44
2-35

Foods eaten by Series 2.

OflHske 87-36

Unseed, No. 1 90-56

Linseed, No. 2. 9154

Barley 85-54

Halt / 91-65

CSorer-elmff / 8466

81-88
86-28
87-46
88-23
89-34
77-39

5-48
4-28
4 08
2-31
2-31
7-27

Table I. (continued,)

Foods eaten by Series 3.

Description of Food.

Norfolk White Turnips,
grown by mineral manures
only

Norfolk White Turnips,
grown by mineral manures ^
and ammoniacal salts )

Norfolk White Turnips,^

grown by mineral manures \

and rape-cake ;

Norfork White Turnips, \
grown by mineral manures I
rape-cake and ammoniacal f
salts )

Mean Per-ccntagc ReealtK.

Dry Matter.

lucluslve
of Ash.

9-37

8-42

7-78

7-88

ExcluslTC
of AHh.

In Fresh
Sabstanoe.

8-74

7-79

714

7-17

Ash.

0-627

0-630

0-639

0-703

In Dry
Matter.

6-69

7-48

8-21

8-92

Nitrogen.

In Fresh
Snhstance.

0146
0-175
0183

0-252

In Dry
Matter.

1-56

2-08
2-36

3-20

Foods eaten by Series 4.

Long Red Mangold, No. 1 ....
Long Red Mangold, No. 2 ...

Mean

Barley

12-94
1314

11-94
12-16

1-002
0-979

7-74
7-45

0-30

0-28

2-36
2-18

13-04

1205

0-990

7-59

0-29

2-27

81-84
95-39
93-76
8974

79-51
92-78
85-06
83-60

2-32
2-60
8-70
6-12

2-84
2 73
9-28
6-82

1-45
1-62
410
6-26

1*78

Malt

1-70

Malt'dust

4-38

Oil-cake

5-87

Table II.
Summary Table of the Per-ccntage Composition of Sheep Foods (continued).

Series 5.
Foods eaten by Hants and Sussex Downs.

Mean Pcr-centago Resnlts.

Description of Food.

Swedish Turnips, Lot 1

'Bwediah TarnipB, Lot 2 ....

Oil'OAke

iSover'baj'

Dry Matter.

Inclasiye
of Ash.

9-81 :

10-32
87-54
8124

EzclnslTe
of Ash.

9-20

9-73

80-84

72-82

Ash.

, In Fresh
Substance.

0-607
0-607

In Dry
Matter.

In Fresh
Sabfltanoe.

6-19
5-87
7-65

Nitrogen.

0-231
0-301
4-98

In Dry
Matter.

2-61
6-70
^•51

Table II. (continued.)

Eaten by Gotswolds.

ItH.

- ■

Mean Per-centagv Ucftnl

Deecription of Food.

Dry Matter.

Ash.

Nitrogen.

In Fresh In Dry
Substance. Matter.

Indusiye
of Ash.

BzdiulTe
ofAah.

In Fresh
Snbstanoc.

InDn
Matter.

Swedish Tomipe, Lot 1

Swedish Tamipe, Lot 2

Swedish Tamips, Lot 3

Oil-cake

10-88
10-70
12-60
87-54
83-66

1037
10-12
11-84
80-84
7646

0-504

0-579

0-758

6-70

7-20

4-63
5-41
6-00
7-65
H-60

0-18
0-2S
0-27
4-99
2-24

1-66
2-63
2-21
5 70
2-68

Clofer-hay

Eaten by Leiceetera ; and by Croes-bred Ewes and WetherH,
[Leicester and South Down].

Swedish Tomips, Lot 1

Swedish Tamips, Lot 2

OUssake

10-89
11-88
86-32
80-48
80-08

10-38
11-26
7a-52
72-38
71-90

0 520
0-623
7 80
8-10
8-18

4-79

5-23

9-04

10-06

1017

0-23
0-25
5-05
2-73

2 73 :

215
2-14
5-86
8-40
3-42

Cloyer-hav. Tiot 1. ...,-^.-„,,

Clover-ha?. Lot 2

Table III.
Sommary Table of Per-centage Composifcion of the Pig Foods.

Eaten by Series 1.

Deficription of Food.

%7ptian Beans ...

loitils, Lot 1

Untils, Lot 2

Indian meal, Lot 1.
Ibdian meal, Lot 2.

Bnm

Barley

Beans
IioaUls, Lot 1. ..
lientils, Lot 2. ..
Barley, Lot 1. ..
Barl^, Lot 2. ..
larky. Lot S. ..
Bna

Mean Per-oentage Result*.

Dry Matter.

InduslTO
of Ash.

88-30
87-30
86-62
89-70
89-89
84-79
81-86

ExdusiTC
of Ash.

Ash.

In Fresh In Dry
Snbstanw Matter.

83-57
82-42
81-64
88-35
88-61
78-77
79-72

4-72
4-87
4-98
1-37
1-28
6-02
214

5-35
5-58
5-75
1-53
142
710
2-61

Nitrogen.

In Fresh
Substance,

4-24
4 52
4-56
1-72
1-95
2 61
183

In Dr>-
Matter.

Eaten by Series 2.

•/

88-17
89-42
89-97
82-38
80-95
S2-b3
85-08

84-45
86-44
85-10
80-19
78-77
80-48
78-67

8-72
2-98
4-87
2-19
218
2-05
6-41

4-22
3-88
5-41
2-66
2-69

4-80
5-18
5-26
1-92
2-17
8-08
2-24

Tablb IV.

Experiments with Sheep— TFf^Wy consumption of Nitrogenous and N
nitrogenous constituents of Food j?^ 100 Ihs. live weight of animal (qt
tities stated in lbs., tenths, &c.).

Series 1. — Five sheep in each pen, 14 weeks.

2.
8.
4.

Limited Food.

Oil-oake

Oats

OloYer-ohaff

Oat-straw ohaff

Complementary or
•d libitum Food.

Swedish Tnmipe
ditto
ditto
ditto

••••••

Means

Nitrogenous Organic
Substance.

•Qpb

p a

1-63
0-88
0*69

1071

0-82
0-69
0-94
1-07

0-882

2-46
1-67
1-64
107

1-68

Non-NitrogenouA
Organic Substance.

•-4 9

2-75
4-76
8*99

3-83

710
6-61
913
9-82

8-16

9-85
11-36
1312
1017

1113

11
\\
\{

Series 2L— Five sheep in each pen, 19 weeks.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Oil-cake
Linseed..
Barley ..
Malt

Glover-chaff,
ditto .
ditto .
ditto .

Meass

1-64
1-26
0-50
0*44

0-96

214
1-95
2-08
2-08

2-06

3-78
3-21
2-68
2-52

802

2-55
819
3-83
3-98

3-89

10-38
9-47
9-96

10-04

9-96

12*93
12-66
13-79
1402

1385

1<
W
1<
1<

Series 8.*~FiYe sheep in each pen, 10 weeks.

1.
2.
8.
4.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Barley

Malt and malt-dust

Barley (steeped)

Malt and malt-dust

(steeped)

Malt and malt-dnst

(extra quantity). . .

Mangold-wortsel

ditto

ditto
ditto

0 44
0-43
0-43

1-26
1-20
1-66

1-70
1-64
2*08

3-58
3-32
335

7-06
6-80
9-24

10-59
10-12
12-60

IS
11

0-40

1-86

1-77

309

7-60

10-70

0-62

1-36

1-89

3*97

7-66

11-63

0-44

1-37

1-82

3*45

7-67

1118

Series 4. — Six sheep in each pen, 10 weeks ; no limited Foods.

Norfolk White Turnips, mineral ma-
nures only

Norfolk White Tomipe, mineral ma-
nures and ammoniacal salts

Norfolk White Tomipe, minwal ma-
nures and rape-cake

Norfolk White Turnips, mineral ma-
nures, rape-ciJce and ammoniacal salts

Means

1-20
1-61
1-64
214

1-62

10-80
9-24
8-86
7-60

9-00

11
S

Tablb IV. (contmve^.

Series 5.-Different bread* of nheep. |

i
1

li
11

Nitroeetinuj OrgmK
SubBianre.

o=^^T=^.

1
S

£■2

£■3

Forty HkDts Downs, (
tweDt}-«is weeb |

Tort; SoMex Downs, 1
tventy-rix weeks (

FoTt7-sx Cotewolda, )

1
1

2-27
2-31
2-27

2-30
2-38

2'41

1-12

1'07
109
1-12

3'39
3-37
3-il
3-37
318
3S3

B-43
6-6:1
5-37
4-70
1-91
4-il6

B-63
B'36
6'6S

li-eo
673

11-U6
10'99
1202
11-lfi
11 'El
11-69

U-45
14-36

tB'43
I4&3
r4fl9

16-22

tj-WMto 1

Forty Crow-bred Bwo^ |

Forty nrom-bred Weth- 1
en, iventj weeks {

MeBDB

2'32

110

312

6-17

(i-23

11-40

14-83

Eiperiments with Sheep. — Coneninption of NitrogenonB and Non-nitro-
gEnons CDnBtitneDta of Food to produce 100 /6s. increase in live weight of
animal (qnantitiee stated in Ihe.).

Serka 1 Fire abaep in e&ch pou, U weeks.

Umlud rood.

id liblciun Food.

(tlCrogBaoiu Organic

^^^'iSSZ^

1
1

£^

Oil^Vfl

Swedish Tnmipe
ditto ...r.

ditto

111

56
43

r>6

4t)
69
102

167
103
102
102

191

2e9

323

469
395

51S
831

650
684
736
913

817
787
838
lOlS

o«u

OU^tnw ohkff

HetLUS

IIS

231

666

746

804

Seriet

2.— Five ebeep in each pen, 19 weeks.

Clo*ec-ohBfl

ditto

138
112

4a
49

183
177
190
217

321

289
235
266

219
2B1
353
>412

884
863
916

1103
1144
1269

1424
1433
1604
I72S

T.i,.«H

tm^

KUt:.

JfMM

1»2

27 ft \ M% \ ^U W^vWeO\^

Tablk V. (continued).

SflriM 8.-PiTe ihMp in eaoh pen. 10 weeks. j

{

Llmllsd EViod.

■dSwtumFoiKl.

"'"XST"

Organic auhsianoc.

£'3

1.
2.
9.
4.

Mangold-wnrtzel
ditto

ditto

31
29
25

87
82
96

104

III

121
136

126

313

220
194

265

488
457
536

731

677
730

821

776

788
8ol

958

903

Malt and malt-dnst
BM^ley (steeped) ...

Halt and malt-doit
(Mrtta qnanHty)...

Means

123

232

615

7i7

870

Seriai 4.— Six sheep in each pen, 10 weeka ; no United Food.

2.
3.
«.

Korfolk White Turnips, mineral ma-

192

153

S34

Lost weight.

1627

930

1682

Lost weight

181tl

loss

2006

Norfolk White Turn

Norfolk White Tnra
nnres and rape-cake

Norfolk Wliite Turn
unres, rspe-oake and

ips. mineral ma.

p9, mineral ma-

ips, mineral ma-
ammoniaoal salts

Means

223

1413

1638

ierieaS.-

-Different breeds of sheep.

""'T.-r.^''^"'

Non-nlcn«PDoiu

t-^

Forty Hants Downs, (
twanty-sii weeks ... i

Forty SuBMi Downs, |
twentj-sii wBoka ... 1

Forty-aiK CoUwolds, |

129
111

127
127
127

GO
55
59
68
59

186
186
186
186

300
318
260
261
260
261

312

a.2

332

SS3
S60
355

612

620
582
619
610
616

788

809
748

H05

Forty croM'bred Ewes, |

795.

Forty oroas-bredWeth- |
en, twentj weeka ... 1

SOS

Meum

\ \W \ M ^. \W

\^*

,fiVO

79^

Table VI.

Bxperimente with Fiffi,-^Weeklt/ consumption of Nitrogenous and Non-
nitrogeaoos constituents of Pood per 100 lbs, live weight of anitnal
(quantities stated in lbs., tenths, &c.).

Series 1. — ^Three pigs in each pen, 8 weeks.

•

Limited Pood, per head,
per day.

Complementary or
ad libitum Fo<k1.

Nitrogenous Organic
Substance.

Non-nit rogenoua
Organic Substance.

^-6

£•2

1 ^

£> 5

-I'd

a 9

None

Bean and Lentil
meal

0*83
1-82
2-14

8-84
7-30
6-39
4-73

8-84
813
7-71

6-87

• • •

5-5

10-6

17-6

14-3

12-8

9-4

17-6
19-8

17-8
20 0

26-4
27-9
25-6
26-9

TniliftTi meal

2.
3.
4.

ditto

Bran

Indian meal and Bran

Means

1-07

6-82

7-89

5-3

13-5

18-8

19-3
211
22 5

221

26-7

22-2
25-7
26-4

27-3

5.
6.

None

Indian meal

ditto

• • •

1-95
1-21

305

2-91
2-60
2-74

215

2-91
4*55
3-95

5-20

• • •

3-9
4-6

8-1

4-1

6-7
9-4

10-4

• • •

19-3
172
179

140

Bean and Lentil meal
Bian

Bean and Lentil meal,
and Bran

Means

1-55

2-00

4-15

17-1

7-0
9-3

6-6
201

21-2

25-4

10.

Bean and Lentil meal
Indian mieal

Bran

ditto

Bean and Lentil
meal, Indian
meal. Bran,
each ad libitum

3-34
1-44

3-23

• • •

1-85
2-46

1-73
612

519
3-90

4-90
612

13-7

18-7

17-0
20- 1

18-9
22-6

22-0
26-2

11.

12.

Beanand Lentilmeal,

and Indian meal...

None

200

3-04

5-04

6-6

10-8

17-4

22*4

Means of t

(he 12 pens

1-54

415

5-69

5-3

13-8

191

24-8

_^^

Series 2. — ^Three Pigs in each pen, 8 weeks.

2.
8.
i

None

Bean and Lentil
meal

• • •

1-23
0-66

1-96
0-96

6-69
7-06
8*07

4-85

6-69
8-29
8-73

6-80

• • •

7-3
2-5

10-1
5-0

14-5
15-3
17-5

10-5

14-5
22-6
20-0

20-6
19i

21-2
30-9
28-7

27-4
27-0

S lbs. Barley meal ...
llh. Bran .r.-,.-.T-,.T-.

ditto

Slbs. Bariejmeal, 1 lb.
Bran

Means

6-67

7-63

14-4

12
Tablb VI. (continued.)

I
I

6
6

7
8

Limited Food, per head,
per day.

None

l|lb.B6an,aiidlilb.
Lentil meal

1 lb. Bran

lllb.Bean,l| lb. Len-
til meal, and 1 lb.
Bzan

Complementary or
ad libitum Food.

Barley Meal

ditto
ditto

ditto

Means.

10.

12.

None Mixture of 1 part

Bran,2part8Bar-
ley meal, and 3
parte Bean and
Lentil meal....,

None Duplicate of pen 9

None |Mixtureof 1 part

Bran, 2 parte
Bean and Lentil
meaI,and3partB
Barley meal ...

None Duplicateofpenl]

Means.

Means of the 12 pens.

Means of the 24 pens.

NitrtMenooB Organic
SabBtance.

2-81
0-61

2-98

1-60

0-85

119

(3 S

3-91

2-36
3*46

1-66

2-84

6-65
7-08

5 86
6-02

6*39

5*30

4-73

3-91

517
406

4*64

4*44

6*65

7-08

5-86
6-02

6-39

615

Non-nltrogenoiia
Organic Sabetanoe.

S"2

61
2-3

7-2

8-9

2-9

5-92

2S6

IS'9
20-9

10-0

171

20*6
21-9

21-4
221

21-5

17-7

15-8

23*6

20-0
23-2

17-2

21-0

20*6
21-9

21-4
221

21-5

20*6

19-9

27*5

25-2
27-3

21-8

25-4

27-2
28-9

27-3
281

27-9

26-8

25*8

Table VII.

Experiments with Pigs. — Consumption of Nitrogenous and Non-nitrpgenouB
constituents of Food, to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight of animal
(quantities stated in Ibe.;.

Series 1. — Three pigs in eaoh pen, 8 weeks.

I
I

2.
8.

Limited Food, per head,
per day.

None

Indian meal

Bran

Indian meal and Bran

Com

k>mplemoDtary or
ad Hbltnm Food.

Bean and Lentil

meal

ditto

Nitrc«enous Organic
Substance.

28
38

B
a 0

138

102

183

r^\

flfe

138
114
161
121

Non-nitrogenous
Organic sabetanoe.

5*5

77
105
185

^1
t%

275
201
267
166

275
278
372
851

Means .1 19 \ \U

\\^^\ ^^Y»ki\^\%

-I

418
392
5SS

473

^ta

Tabm VII.

(eontintud.)

"'■TSSSL^r^

.ssiJ?K5Ss:.

1
I

iDdion Heal

ditto

ii'i
i«

57
42
40

.-.7
73

... ' 378
62 37.-,
e» 264

U4 19.i

878
337
332

309

435

410
390

382

%. BouiuidLaitilmeat

Moans

li,-.

«l

278

339

404

9. Bflanuiil Lentil meal

127
48

...

71
B2

41)
107

198
130

114
107

25R
311

240

208
309

151
350

2fi9

623

630

391
350

721
7S0

50.1
457

ditto

Bean and Lentil
mesl, Indian
meal. Bran, each
ad libitum

11. beon and Lentil meal

Meana

fl2

7n i37

202

471

608

UeaoBofthe 1£ pens

77 Hi

IIS

2i<9

376

488

SerieB 2,— Three pigs i

aeaa

pen. 8 weeks.

Bean and Lentil

20
12

i4<;
uo

14tl
137

u-i

12T,

120
43

186

317
2,j4
30.-)

192

817
874
348

378

41k)
611
5(Xt

603

I 3 lla. Barley meal ...

ditto

l 3 Its. Barley meal,

123

2(i7

3B4

494

Barley meal

ditto

.-lO
10

fi4

41
5(i

3<j

fi4

91
6ti

too

107
38

ir.7

38S

24.-,
341

2ie

385

352

379

372

449

443
445

472

6. I|lb. Beanandlilb.

>■ ltlb.BeBD,UIl>.Leii'
til meal, and 1 lb.

Menus

4U 80

7,-.

297

372

452

Mixture of 1 part

Barley meal, and
3 parts Bean and
Lentil meal ...
OnpUoateof pen 9
Uiitare of 1 part
Bran, 2 pacts
Bean and Lentil
meal, and 3 part^
Barley meal ...
Dnplicateofpenli

110

117

362
342

320
321

362
342

320
321

479
45S

408
408

"1. None ::;:::::;:::::::::::;

>!' Ncne

Moans

... \ iiii\vi\

...

\»

^^^ib

/ JTsuu ot (he 12 pons

\ 9\\\V\\ u^^w

b\^'!.l.\\'i.\^

Hexaa of the M peOa

1 &4\lQ^\%ftV

w\^

A glance at the Tables as a whole must show, that in all comparable cases
there is much more of uniformity of amount in the total columns of w^w-nitro-
genous than in those of nitrogenous substance, both as to the quantities con-
sumed to a given freight of animal mthin a given time, and to those required
to produce a given weight of increase. The deviations from this general
regularity in the amount of non-nitrogenous substance consumed under equal
drcumstances, are indeed, in most cases such, that when examined into they
tend the more clearly to show, that the uniformity would be considerably
more strict if the amounts only of the really available respiratory and fat-
forming constituents could have been represented, iustead of, as in the case
of these Tables, that of the gross or total w(?^w-nitrogenous substance consumed.
For, in reading the actual figures of the Tables, allowance has to be made
both for those of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food which would
probably become at once eifete, and also for the different respiratory and fat-
forming capacities of the portions of them which are digestible and available
for the purposes of the animal economy. It must further be remembered,
that even after all due allowance has been made for the sources of discre-
pancy just referred to, the amounts which we may suppose to be so corrected
must still cover all variations, whether arising from aifferences of external
circumstances — from individual pecularities in the animals themselves — from
the different amounts stored up in them according to the adaptation of the
respective foods — as well as from the many other uncontrollable circum-
stances which must always interfere with any attempts to bring within the
range of accurate numerical measurement the results of those processes in
which the subtle principal of animal life exerts its influence. Bearing, then,
all those points in mind which must tend to modify the true indications of
the actual figures in the Tables, it appears to us, that the coincidences in
the amounts of available respiratory and fat-forming constituents consumed
by a given weight of animal, under equal circumstances, within a given time,
and also in those required under equal circumstances to produce a given
amount of increase in weight, must be admitted to be much more striking
and conclusive than a priori we could have expected to find them. With
this general uniformity, however, as to the amounts of non-nitrogenous
substance consumed under given circumstances, or for a given result, those
of the nitrogenous constituents are found to vary, under the same circum-
stances, in the proportion of from 1 to 2 or 3.

In illustration of our statements let us examine the Tables for a moment
somewhat more in detail.

In Table lY. we have the amounts of the two classes of constituents re-
spectively, which were consumed weekly per 100 lbs. live weight of animdl,
in the case of five different series of experiments with sheep. In aU cases
the experiments extended over a period of many weeks, and in B(Hne even of
several months. Each series comprised several pens, to each of which (except
in Series 4, in which there were no limited fo^) there was allotted a dif-
ferent description of fixed or limited food, the ad libitum or complementaij
food being (except in series 4) the same throughout the several pens of the
same series, but different in the different series. In the Series 1, 2, 3 and 4^
there were five or six sheep in each pen ; in Series 5, from 40 to 50 sheep in
each pen.

In Series 1, the complementary or ad libitum food was Swedish tnmipB,
and the limited foods were —

In j)en 1, oil-cake.
In pen 2, oats.
A pen 8, olover-H)baff.
^^pen 4, oatrstraw chaff.

The oat-Btiaw chaff of pen 4 was given as adding to the othenvisc only
SDCcnlent matter of the tnrnip, the hulk of solid matter which seems to he
demanded particnlarlj by rominant animals. So small a quantity of this
araw was eaten, however, that it need scarcely enter into our calculations.
Turning to the results of pens 1, 2 and 3, it is seen that the weekly cousump-
tion of non-nitrogenous matter per 100 lbs. live weight of animal is, with the
oil-cake as limited food, 9*8 lbs. ; with the oats, ITS lbs. ; and with the clover-
chaflF, 13*1 lbs. Now, of these three descriptions of food, the oil-cake would
coutain by far the most of oleaginous matter, the respimtorv and fat-forming
capacity of which is about twice and a half as great as tuat of the starch
series of compounds which would more abound in the oats. Hence we find
that a less actual weight of non-nitrogenous substance was consumed with
the oil-cake than with the oats. But to the reason just given, to which a part
of the result was doubtless due, we might add that there was a comparatively
large and somewhat excessive amount of nitrogenous matter consumed in the
oikiike pen, a part of which at least might serve the respiratory and fat-
forming functions. Then, again, in pen 8, where clover-chaff was the limited
fofxL the animals would consume a much larger amount of effete woody
fibre than with either the oil-cake or the oats ; in this pen therefore a larger
!J03S weight of non-nitrogenous substance must be eaten to yield the same
equivalent of that which is available for respiratory or fat-forming puq)oees
than with either of the other foods. When therefore, allowance has been
made for the different quantities and capacities of the available constituents
in the several foods, it will be seen, that the equivalents of the available non-
nitrogenous constituents consumed in the different cases, are in reality much
more nearly identical, than the figures as they stand in the Table would
indicate. But if we now turn to the colunm of the nitrogenous substance
consumed under the same circumstances, we find that it varies, comparing
one pen with another in this first series, nearly as much as from 1 to 2^.

In the second series (Table IV.) we have clover-chaff as the ad libitum or
complementary food in all the pens, instead of Swedish turnips as in Series 1 ;
and again, with the much larger amount of effete woody fibre, we have a
I&rger gross amount of the non-nitrogenous substance consumed. The
average of the four pens of this Series 2 is indeed almost identical with the
amount where clover-chaff was employed in Series 1. Again, comparing one
ptn with another in this clover-chaff series, we have with the larger amounts
of oleaginous matter supplied in the linseed and oil-cake, less of gross non-
nitrogenous substance taken than \\ith the barley or the malt, in which there
is a proportionally larger amount of the starch series of compounds. When
due allowance is made, then, for the different respiratory and fat-forming
capacities of the several foods, we have again a closer coincidence than would
at fiiBt sight appear, in the equivalents of the non-nitrogenous substances
consumed in the different pens of this second series — as also when we com-
pare this series with the former one. Turning now to the colunm of the
nitrogenous substances consumed in this second series, we see that the gross
amounts vary more than in those of the non-nitrogenous ; and more indeed
^, according to any knowledge we at present possess, could be accounted
for by a consideration as to the state in which tne nitrogen existed in the
*veril pens. Comparing now the result of the one series with those of the other,
althou^ in the two cases the description of the larger portion of the food is
^del^ different, and we have found that there is nevertheless considerable
coincidence in the amounts of non-nitrogenous substance consumed, yet the
columns of nitrogenous substance throughout the two seriea show a very
^i^ variation in the qnantitieB of these consumed — iixxiOTmV»m^^\\i^<^^^^\QL

the extreme cases, to as much as from one to three and a half. There can be
little doubt that the method of estimating the amount of available nitro-
genous substance from the per-centage of nitrogen must be more or less faulty,
both in the case of the succulent turnips of the first series, and in that of the
also unripened produce — clover-chaif — of the second ; but whether or in
what degree the differences in the amounts consumed in the two series would
be lessened by corrections due to this source of discrepancy, we have not the
means of accurately deciding.

In the third series, which consisted of five pens, mangold-wurtzel was the
complementary food ; and the limited foods were barley and malt, respectively,
in different states and proportions in the several pens. Throughout this series
the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous constituents varied but
little in the limited foods, and being also constant in the complementary foods
of the several pens, we have but little difference in this series in the amounts
respectively of either class of constituents when comparing pen with pen.
Comparing the results of this series with those of the others, however, we
observe that there was a very close coincidence between the amounts of avail-
able w^/i-nitrogenous substance consumed ; but in those of the nitrogenous
substances there is little in common when thus taking at one view the results
of the several series.

In the fourth series we have no supply of limited food. In all the four
pens Norfolk-white turnips only were given ad libitum. Those supplied to
the different pens, were, however, respectively grown by very different manures,
and differed in all cases very much in ultimate composition and other
(jualities. Thus, the per-centage of dry substance and the state of maturity
were greatest in the turnips of pen 1, and diminished in the order of the pens,
they being in pen 4 the worst in both these respects. On the other hano, the
per-centage of water, of mineral matter, and of nitrogen, and the degree of
unripeness or unfitness for food, were in the inverse order. The turnips eaten
in pen 1 were, however, too ripe, and what is called " pithy " ; and those
were in the best condition which were supplied to pen 2.

In this series there was, with a probably generally lower amount of effete
matter, at the same time a generally less amount of non-nitrogenous substance
consumed — ^though most where the tumi])8 were known to be too ripe and
pithy. In pen 4 there was a very small amount of w^/? -nitrogenous substance
taken ; but there is no doubt that here the limit to consumption was fixed by
the unfitness of the turnips as food, and not by their high value in this respect ;
for these turnips were very succulent and unripe, and notwithstanding they
contained a very hujh per-renta-ge of nitroyen^ all the animals fed upon them
lost weight. Taking the circumstances into accoimt, then, we have as much
uniformity in the amounts of non-nitrogenous constituents consumed as we
could expect, both among the several pens of the series, and in comparing this
series with the rest. In the column of nitrogenous constituents, on the other
hand, there is nothing to indicate any uniformity of demand for the supply
of them, whether we compire pen with pen, or the results of this series
with those of the others. It might perhaps be objected, from what we have
already said of the varying qualities of the turnips used in this series, that
the nitrogenous compounds themselves would exist in the different lots in a
more or less assimilable condition ; and hence probably some of the differences
in the amounts consumed. Doubtless there were differences in this respect
in the different lots, but it is seen that there is nearly twice as much of nitrogen
consumed in one pen as in another ; and we cannot suppose that by any such
m^hod of correction as has been suggested, so large a difference as thifi,
or even that the whole of the lesser ones obaetveA. \u \.W otlver cases, conld

be thus accounted for. It is worthy of observation, however, that in this
imesthe amounts of the nitrogenons constituents consumed are in an inverse
ratio tx) those of the non-nitrogenous ; and if we are to calculate, that in the
case of a defect of the latter or an excess of the former, a notable portion of
ihe uitrogeuona constituents would serve as respiratory material, such an
assumption in the present case would tend yet more clearly to show the closer
dependence of consumption upon respiration, than u^wn the supplies l)y the
food of the plafitic elements of nutrition, as such.

lu the next and last series of experiments to l>e noticed with i^hfep^ as far
as possible the same description of foods is used throuc^hout ; but animals
of (lifFerent breeds and weights and other admitted qualities are now the
sal»jtct of experiment in the several pens. The breeds which have thus been
cc'inpored are, — ^the Hampshire Down, Sussex Down, Cotswold, Leicester,
Half-bred TVethers (Leia-ster and Southdown), and Half-bred Ewi«
(Leicester and Southdown). In all these exijeriments oil-c<ike and clover-
chaff were the limited foods, and Swedish turniijs the complementary food.
A1k>ui 1 lb. per head per day of each of the limited fwxls Avas given to tlie
flampshires ; and takmg this allowance as the standard, the other breeds had
qoantitiea of these foods exactly in projwrtion to their weights. There were
frc'in 40 to 50 sheep in each lot ; and each experiment extendeil over seveml
HMmths. The experiments were, however, not all made in the Siime season;
the tuniips were therefore of different growtlis ; and the oil-cake and clover-
chaff, though chosen as nearly as possible of similar quality, were not always
from the same stocks. These circumstimces, then, as well as the intrinsic
differences in the breeds themselves, if ajiy, might be supjwsed ix-rhaps to
have gome share in any variations in result. We see, however, that there
is nevertheless a very striking coincidence in the amounts of constituents
consumed to a given weight of animal among the different breeds. 15nt
what is more to the purpose, the amounts of non-nitrogenous sul^stance
cousamed to a given weight of aninuil by these different breeds, and at
different times, are, after making, as before, due allowance for the prol)al)le
different ei|uivalents of the foods, exactly consistent with the indiciitions of
the other .series withall theirvaried foods. This result, then, further shows tliat
in all, the respiratory and fat-forming exigencies of the animals have fixed
the limit to their consmnption of food ; and also that these reciuiremcnts ha\"e,
wi an average, and mider somewhat similar circumstimces, a pretty constant
relationship to their weights. With this genend cc^incidence in the amount
of non-nitrogenous substance consumed to a given weight (.)f animal in the
several pens of this series, there could not, of coiu^e, with foods of similar
oconposition in all, be much variation in the amounts of the nitrogenous con-
stituents taken imder the same circumstances. Of these, however, we have
throughout this series twice or thrice as much as in many cases of the other
■cries, which would not happen if the demand for them had l)een the guide
to consumption ; nor shall we afterwards find that tha imrease in ivei(jht
obtained was by any means proportional to this large amount of nitrogenous
mbstance consanDted.

In our experiments with sheep, then, whether with different descriptions
of food, or with different breeds of the animal, the amount of food consumpd
^^^uldseem to be regulated by the quantities whidi, it supplied oft/te non^nitro-
g^owt rather than by those of the nitrogenous constituents.

So much, then, for the bearing of our sheep experiments upon the question
of the amount of food conBumed according to its coTnpo«iv\,voTv x \jra^ \sfcV>\^.
®^iy apon a consideration of the rcsalts of theae ^m^ <£X]gfcnisi««^A v^
^«««w to the second question, namely, that of t\ic increase ^roiAvft^d^ W

will be well to see how far the experiments with pigs afford us similar indi-
cations in relation to the former one.

The pig requires much less of mere bulk in his food than the ruminant
animal. Indeed, the food of the Pig, when on a liberal fattening diet, consista
generally, weight for weight, of a much larger proportion of digestible or
convertible constituents, and contains much less of effete woody fibre than
that of the sheep. Thus, whilst the food of the fattening sheep is principally
composed of grass, hay and roots, with a comparatively small proportion of
cake or corn, that of the fattening pig comprises a larger proportion of com,
which contains a comparatively small amount of indigestible woody fibre,
and is comparatively abundant in starch, sugar, &c., and in highly nitro-
genous compounds. Notwithstanding the generally richer character of his
food, however, the fattening pig is found to consume a much larger quantity
of dry substance in relation to his weight than the sheep. We should ait
least expect, therefore, that he would yield a greater proportion of increase,
and this he is found to do. Such, indeed, is the greediness of the animal,
and so much larger is the proportion of the food which he will consume
beyond that which is necessary for the respiratory function, or for the
foimation of flesh, and which is therefore employed in storing up fat, that
the amounts of non-nitrogenous matter consumed must obviously, in his
case, have a less close numerical relationship to the requirements of the
respiratory system than in that of the sheep. Hence, no doubt, is in part
the reason that the exact indications of the figures of the Tables are, on the
whole, not so consistent as with the sheep. The experiments with the pigs
however, bear testimony in the same direction as those with the sheep on
the question now in discussion, and the evidence they afford on the point is,
indeed, very conclusive.

In the arrangement of the pig experiments the selection of the foods was
made rather according to composition than to cost. In the first series (see
Tables VI. and VII.) the foods chosen were —

A mixture of equal parts of bean and lentil meal as a highly nitrogenous
food.

Indian corn meal, as the comparatively non-nitrogenoiAsfood. And —

Bran, as containing a considerable amount of woody fibre.

The series comprised twelve pens, in each of which three pigs were placed.
In the first four pens, the bean and lentil mixture constituted thea^ libitum
food ; in one of these it was given alone, and in the others with a limited
amount of one or both respectively of the other two descriptions of food.
In the second set of four pens, the Indian corn meal was the ad libitum food ;
and it, in its turn, was in one case given alone, and in the others with a
certain amount of the other or limited foods. In the third set of pens, bran
was the ad libitum food ; the other two then constituting the fixed or limited
food. In this way there was secured a great diversity in the proportion of
the nitrogenous to the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food in the
several pens ; and as the animals were allowed to fix for themselveB the limit
of their consumption, the results aif ord us the means of judging, whether in
doing this, their natural instincts have led them to any uniformity in relation
to their weights, in the amounts taken of either of these claGBes of constitaents.

In Table Yl. are given the amounts of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenoiis

constituents respectively, consumed weekly by every 100 lbs. Uve weight of

animal. In this Table we see at a glance, that although there are acme

apparent discrepancies^ yet the figurea in the colunm of fttfit-nitrogenoiu

oonatitaentB are mvLch more miiform than iix tic^^i ol \i)cL<^T)iyxn^5atfra& oneib

«ii4 « to the tew apparent deviation& from tiaaa \im:VLQjim\JS,^«^ Vkao^ >^

mil be much more reasonable to attempt to explain, or even considering the
natxire of the subject, to admit as inexplicable, a few discrepant cases, tlian to
reject on their account the general testimony of mach more namcrous, more
oonsistent, and otherwise safficiently conclusive results. Thus in the first
Mt of four pens in this series, there is, upon the whole, a less amount of the
Don-nitro^nous constituents consumed tnan in the second ; and this lessened
amount oi non-nitrogenous constituents consumed in the former is seen to be
coincident with excessive consum^ion of the nitrogenous ones, audit is even
the less the greater that excess, it is also worthy of remark, too, that in pens
5 to 8, where there was this larger amount of non-nitrogenous substance
consumed, it was supplied chiefly by Indian com meal, which, containing
mon.' oily matter than that of the foods in pens 1 to 4, would also possess a
higher respiratory and fat-forming capacity, weight for weight, than that in
tte other cases. We may here suppose, that perhaps a surfeit of the nitro-
genous substances put a limit to the further consumption of non-nitrogenous
constituents which would otherwise have been taken ; or, that being in excess,
the nitrogenous substances have substituted other respiratory material ; and
it is consistent with such a supposition, that with the less amount of non-
nitrogenous constituents consumed, where the nitrogenous are in excess, there
is nevertheless a larger amount consumed of total organic substance than
where there is more of the non-nitrogenous constituents.

That a larger amount of the complementary food was consumed when it
consisted of the comparatively low nitrogenized Indian meal, was not due
only to a craving for a supply of nitrogen which a less quantity would not
have yielded, would appear, among other considerations, from the fact, that
when, after a time, the pigs in pen 5, where Indian meal alone was given,
had bt'come affected with large tumours breaking out on their necks,
their breathing and swallowing becoming at the same time difficult, we, in
order to test the question as to whether this arose from a defect of nitrogen
or from other causes, supplied them with a trough of mineral substances : they
Boon recovered from their complaint, and eventually proved to be among the
fattest and best of the entire series of pigs ; at least, a dealer in pork with
a practised eye, purchased by preference one of these animals from among
the whole set of carcases. The mineral mixture that was supplied to them
was composed of twenty parts coal ashes, four parts common salt, and one
part superphosphate of lime ; and for it they seemed to exhibit considerable
idish.

In pens 9, 10 and 11, a comparatively small quantity of the more digestible
foods was allowed, the complementary food bemg in these cases bran ; and
as we have before said the digestive apparatus of the pig is not adapted for
a large amount of bulky wocKly substance. Here the animals consumed a
In amount of non-nitrogenous substance in proportion as the bran predo-
fflioated in their food ; and they at the same time also increased and fattened
much less than those in the other pens. In fact, until 3 lbs. per head per day
of die limited foods were allowed instead of only two, as was at first given,
several of the pigs lost weight and became unwell ; being as it were paralysed
teooty ?), and amiost deprived of the use of their legs. There can be little
mht that the proportion of woody matter in the bran, which food only
they had at full command, was too great for the convenience of their sto-
niachs ; and that hence, after their respiratory requirements had been fulfilled,
ft limit was pot to further consumption to serve the mere purpose of fattening.
In pen 12, the BevezaJ fooda, namelj, the bean and \ein\A\ mxiUQS^ m^
himmaU, aadtbe bran, were each put into a sepaxaJtA Xitowi^^'cA ^^
«ffltA wan allowed to take of all or any of them adlibitum. \I w^Hx. ^^

that one of the pigs in this pen was unwell in the same way as those referred
to in the previous pens during a considerable portion of the period of the
experiment, we might have assumed perhaps, that the results of this pen would
have point^ to the proportions of the several foods best adapted to the wantg
of the animals ; and^if such a conclusion were a legitimate one, it would
indeed appear, that their natural demands called for a larger proportion of
nitrogen tnan was within the reach of the animals in any of those pens in
which Indian meal was the ad libitum or complementary food. Two of the
pigs, however, in this pen 12, increased exceedingly well, and gave eventually
the highest proportion of carcass to live weight, of any in this entire series of
experiments. It is, too, an interesting fact, that as the experiment proceeded,
and the animals matured, their consumption diminished very considerably.
Thus, the proportion of the bean and lentil mixture to the total food consumed
was only two-thirds as great at the conclusion as at the commencement of
the experiment, whilst that of the Indian meal was not three-fifths as much
at the commencement as at the conclusion. We have in this fact some indi-
cation of the large proportion of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food
which is appropriated by the fattening animal.

Reviewing, as a whole, the results of these twelve dietaries, and carefulty
considering the bearing of the various circumstances which must influenoe
our reading of the actual figures of the Table relating to them, we think it
cannot be doubted, that here, as in the case of the sheep, we have very clear
evidence that it is the non-nitrogenous, rather than the nitrogenous consti-
tuents of the food, that have fix«i the hmit to cotismnpUon,

In the lower section of this Table VI., we have the results bearing upon the
same point, of a second series of experiments with pigs, conducted on a
similar plan to that of the former one. In this secona series of pig experi-
ments, we have, as before, the bean and lentil mixture as the highly nitro*
genous food. Barley meal is in this case used as the non-nitrogenous food,
instead of Indian com as in the former series. Bran, again, constitutes the
third food. In this series, however, when either the bean and lentil mixture
or the barley meal, constituted the limited food, the daily allowance \^t head
was 3 lbs. instead of 2, as in the former series. When the limited food wai
bran, 1 lb. only, instead of 2 as previously, was now given. In other respects,
excepting that in this series bran was in no case given alone as the ad libitum
food, the arrangements were the same as in the case of the previous series.

The weather during part of the period of this second series of experiments
was exceedingly hot ; from this several of the animals suffered considerably ;
and some, ei^er from this or other causes, became quite ill and died, or were
" killed to save their hves." Nevertheless it is seen, that there was, upon the
whole, a larger amount of respiratory food consumed in relation to weight in
this series than in the previous one during the cooler season.

If we compare the column of the amounts of non-nitrogenous constituents

consumed weekly, per 100 lbs. hve weight of animial, for this series, as ^vai

in the lower section of Table VI., with that in the upper section for Senes 1,

we shall see that there was, upon the whole, a greater uniformity in the former

than in the latter. There are, however, one or two marked exceptions to the

regularity of amount of non-nitrogenous matter consumed in tnis Series 2,

which, but for coincident circumstances, and the abundance we have of evi-

denoe in the opposite direction, might lead to different conclusions thaa those

which we have drawn from the results as a whole ; but at any rate the uni-

iferaz2/]Jf J8 BtiU greBtei here than in the column of the nitrogenouB sabBtanoes.

-Hie more obviom exoeptions to the rule ate pen^ \ wjkSi % \ \sq&» ^^^gait from

«V incidental oansee wnioh might aocoxmti ioi \Xiefife— «sA \acL «m36l ^ Sh»^

pens one of the animals died— we shall see, when we come to consider the

qoeation of the amount of increase produced by a given amount of food con-

nmed, that although the pigs were satisfied to eat a smaller proportion of

food in relation to their weight in these pens where the proportion of nitrogen

was comparatively large, yet the proportion of increase to the food consumed

was le^s than where the amount of /i(?rt-nitrogenou9 substance consumed

was mxvA\ greater. Hence, in these cases, if there were a smaller amount

of food consumed, there was also a smaller proportion of increase produced

hj it, and there would therefore at the same time obviously be a larger

proportion of it available for the purposes of respiration. These apparent

exceptions arc not, then, neces^rily adverse to the view that the respiratory

proce?*s was the gauge of consumption.

We have already noticed, that notwithstanding the weather was much hot-
ter during the progress of the second series of experiments, yet that there
wa* hf:re, upon the whole, a larger amount of non-nitrogenous substance
oonsnmi.'d in proportion to weight of animal than in the first. This apparent
excess, if indeJid it show any real excess in respiratory and fat-forming equi-
valent, at any rate does not do so in the degree which the bare figures of the
Tabk- would indicate. Thus, the Indian corn of the first series, of which
t ks* amount seems to have sufficed than of the barley in the second, con-
tainer! about C per cent, of oleaginous matter, instead of less than 3 per cent.,
as in the barley. And as a deficiency of 3 per cent, in fatty substance would,
for respiratory and fat-forming purposes, require to be substituted by about
twice and a lialf that amount of the other non-nitrogenous constituents, it
is obvions that the respiratory and fat-forming capacity of the Indian
meal non-nitrogenous matter was therefore somewhat higher than that of the
barley ; and hence a less amount of it would be required to produce the same
Ksnlt.

Wp could add to the results already given those of further experiments
both with pigs and sheep, as well as some with bullocks, b3aririg upon the
point we have been considering ; but those we have already adduced are,
we think, sufficient to justify our conclusion, that, in reference to this first

ntion, at least so far as fattening animals are concerned, the amount of
consumed is regulated more by its supplies of the non-nitrogenous, than
of the nitrogenous constituents.

We now come to the second question ; namely, that of the relationship
of the inrrevte in live wfiiqhf proflwrd to the consumption of nitrogenous
and non-nitrogenous constituents in the food.

Turning first to the experiments with sheep, we have in Table V. the amounts
respectively of the non-nitrogenous, of the nitrogenous, and of the total or-
ginic substance consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight.

In viewing the Tables in reference to this point, we must, as before, read
the indications of the actual figures as modified by the obviously different
otpariti^s for the purposes of the animal economy of the substances, the
Mnoants of which they in each case represent. Especially, too, when con-
lidering the results with the sheep, we must bear in mind the fact, which we
have ascertained by direct experiment, namely, that other things being equal,
ti» more succulent the food, the less will l)e the proportion of real dry sub-
itoce in the increase obtained by its means ; and also, that the greater the
•mount of fat produced the greater considerably will be the per-centage in
Wie gross increase of real dry substance. And we must further remember,
(bat as in the Tables showing the relationship of conswntpfioa to tea^itaAiVQ^i^
•he ^gnres also incladed the increase in weight o\)Uv(\e3L, Vi xisy«^\\!LSJcL^
JMes professing to show the relationship of the i?vcrease \f^ lYvft ^t&\K\*xvKoJa^

consmned, the figures at the same time include the amounts which have l
expended in the respiratory process.

Looking down the entire columns of Table V.,it is at once seen that where
clover-chaff was employed, that is to say, wherever there was a large amo
of innutritions woody fibre, the gross amount of non-nitrogenous substa
consumed to produce a given amount of increase is always great. The 8
lysis of the excrements of this series showed, indeed, that there was, in
lation to the non-nitrogenous matter consumed in the food, a veiy m
larger proportion of it voided b;^ the animals than in the case of the se
where the amount of woody fibre in the food was less. This, therefore, n
be allowed for in comparing the figures in the column. It will at once
seen, when due allowance has thus been made, that the amounts of avail
non-nitrogenous substance consumed to produce a given weight of incre
are at any rate much more nearly unifoim than are those of the nitroger
constituents. Of the differences which will still remain after the allowi
for woody fibre has been made, many can be again reduced by a considera
of the different eq^uivalents of the remaining available non-nitrogenous (
stituents ; as for mstance, when in comparable cases these contain, in
instance, more of oil, and in another more of the starch series of compou:
A less amount of the former than of the latter is required to produce
same resulting increase in the animal ; and again, less of the starchy 8<
than of some of the peculiar products of the root crops.

In the column showing the proportion of the total nitrogenous substi
consumed to increase pr^uced (Table V.), we have a much wider rang
difference than m that of the non-nitrogenous, and much wider, indeed, t
can be explained away by such considerations as have above been allude
in reference to the latter. It is true that these figures cannot, any more t
in the colunm of the non-nitrogenous constituents, be taken as showing
solutely proportional nutritious values of the matters represented ; for a
have before observed the figures assume the whole of the nitrogen of
food to exist in the form of proteine compounds, which obviously would
be the case with the succulent and unripened produce, such as the roots
clover-chaff ; and hence, this consideration must more affect the correct
of the statement of nitrogenous constituents consumed for a given resa
the sheep e™riments than in those with the pigs, where the foods empl<
were ripeDea seeds. But, as we have observed, the differences in the fig
in the Table would seem to be too great to be satisfactorily accounted fo
the correction of any errors arising from this cause.

Looking at this Table V. rather more in detail, we see, taking the first
pens in Series 1, which are comparable so far asthedescriiiion of the adUbi
food is concerned, that whilst the non-nitrogenous substance consume!
produce 100 lbs. increase in weight is very nearly equal in the two cases
that of the nitrogenous constituents varies in the two in the proportio;
from three to two ; but a difference in the nature of the nitrogenous sabsti
cannot be supposed to have made a difference so great in the amount of
stituents consumed to produce a given result. On the other hand, the hi]
capaaty of the oleaginous matter of the oil-cake than of the starch, &c
the oats, is sufficient further to lessen the bi t small difference in the amo
of the non-nitrogenous substance in the two cases. In pens 2, 8, and -
the first senes of sheep, we have all but identical amounts of gross nitiOM
m^jT;^i.i^^iT^ ^^L^ P^^° ^^™t <>f ^^crease ; but this would teo
SSZ^^^' ^^^i"" I*^ 2 ^^^ *^ "^^ ^d the least so in p

* «Bwnce, tiie respiratory and fat-formmg capacitti ol «ttfi Ti^Tx-TatoSg

nbstanoe in the ezdnsive tamip diet wonld.be less than in the other instances ;
tod hence the larger amount consumed for a given result.

Taming to the results of the second series, with clover-chaff instead of
tomips as the ad Uhitum food, we have, with the larger amount of woody
fibre, which would become at once effete, much more gross non-nitrogenous
matter consumed to produce 100 lbs. of increase than in Series 1. This is
lesB, however, in pens 1 and 2, with the large proportion of oleaginous matter,
than in pens 8 and 4. There is, moreover, in this second series, with this
pater amount of 7i(7n-nitrogenous matter consumed for a given effect than
m Series 1, a much larger amount also of the nitrogenaus constituents ; the
gross amount of the latter, indeed, in this second series, is twice, and even
sometimes thrice as great as in Series 1.

In the next series, namely, Series 3, with barley and malt in different states
and proportions as limited food, and mangold- wurtzel as the complementary
lood^ we have, upon the whole, about the same amounts of non-nitrogenous
nbstance required to produce the same result as in series 1, with, besides, a
BoaQ quantity of grain or other limited food and Swedish turnips as the com-
plementary food, which latter are in great degree comparable with the mangold-
wnitMtl ; and of course, as in Series 1, the average amount is very different
from that in the second series with the large proportion of clover-chaff.
Lookinfi; to the three total columns, namely, of nitrogenous, of non-nitrogen-
008, and of total organic constituents consumed, although it is true the dif-
ferences are not great, and perhaps such as might be covered by differences
in the composition of the increase, yet it may be noticed, that larger amounts,
both of non-nitrogenous and of total organic substance, were consumed to
produce the same result the larger the proportion in the latter of the nitro-
genons constituents.

In Series 4, we have a more marked instance of the result last noticed.
Bot, apart from the question as to whether the increase of the fattening
Bnimalhas a closer relationship with the amount of the true proteitie com-
powids, or, within certain limits, of the available non-nitrogenous constitu-
ents of its food, we have here a striking illustration of the inapplicability on
other grounds of the per-ceniage of nitrogen as the measure of feeding value,
or indeed of any analytical method, unless a detailed determination of the
froxmalB compounds^ when succulent products, such as in this instance, the
toots, are the subjects of the experiment. Thus, in the fourth pen of this series,
where there was by far the largest amount of nitrogen consumed, the animals
lost weight ; and in the other three pens, the productiveness of the food is in
the inverse order of the amounts of nitrogen taken in the food. This arose of
oourae from the different states of maturity, and the consequent state of elabo-
i»tion of the constituents of the various turnips, the produce of the different
nttnores. Indeed, we believe that an unusually high per-centage of nitrogen
in saoculent produce is frequently a pretty sure indication of immaturity and
innntritions qualities. Comparing the results of this series with those of the
<JtherB, we have, considering how small would be the proportion of inert
woody fibre in the unripe turnips, about twice as much d^ substance (in
pens 1 and 8 at least) consumed to produce a given amount of increase — a
difference which could, at any rate in only a small degree, be accounted for
ly any difference in the capacities of the digestible and available portions of
w foods in the cases thus compared.

Considering only the ostensible similarity of the foods in the several pens
constituting the 5th and last series of experiments with sheep, there is, per-
Ittps, no more of coincidence in the amounts that Yiave ^^eci le^jivK&LXft'^ca-
me a given increaae in the different pens, than, iwSi^Xi^ Itoccl ^x^^TV^Ka*
nnUi^ we might have anticipated. Prom what we Vno^ ^\iO^«^^x^ A *Oofe

varying character of the several breeds as f atteners, greater differences might
have l^en expected ; for, in some cases a less or larger proportion of the
gross increase would be solid substance than in others ; whilst this solid sub-
stance itself would be composed of more or less of fat or lean — circumstances
which obviously imply the appropriation in the increase, of varying amounts
and proportions of the constituents of the food consumed. Then, again,
though nominally the same, there were unavoidably slight differences in the
qualities of the food used in the different cases, and the experiments them-
selves were not all conducted in the same season ; that with the Hampshire
and Sussex Downs being made in the winter of 1850-51, that with the Cots-
wolds in 1851-52, and with the Leicesters and half-breeds in 1852-53.
There is also, upon the whole, a very general coincidence in the amounts of
non-nitrogenous and total organic substance, consumed to produce a given
amount of increase in this series with the different breeds, and the Series
1 and 3. At least the general coincidence throughout these several series is
quite as close as the variations in the foods could lead us to look for. But
in the column of nitrogenous substance the agreement between this series
and the others is by no means so obvious ; nor, so far as we know, can the
want of agreement in the cases thus compared together be accounted for hj
differences in the composition and applicability of the nitrogenous consti-
tuents themselves.

Reviewing then the whole of the experiments with sheep, — if we consider
that it is the results obtained under the subtle agency of animal life that we
are seeking to measure and express in figures, and if we also bear in mind
the various sources of modification to which our actual figures must be sub-
mitted in order to attain their true indications, we think that it cannot be
doubted, that beyond a limit below which few, if any, of our current fattening
food-stuiffs are found to go, it is their available non- nitrogenous constituents
rather than their riclmess in the nitrogenous ones, that measure both the
amount consumed to a given weight of animal, within a given time, and the
increase of weight obtained.

But we have still to examine the results of the experiments with pigs as to
the latter point, namely, that of the relationship of the inoreaM produced to
constituents consumed ; and owing partly to the peculiarities of the animals,
and partly to the nature of the foods employed, the actual figures themselves
even (see Table VII.) bear out the view that has been maintained more ob-
viously at first sight, than those relating to the sheep. Thus, casting the eye
down the column of total non-nitrogenous substance consumed, and more
particularly that of the total organic matter, we see with but few exceptions, a
strikingly close coincidence in the amounts required to produce 100 pounds
of gross mcrease throughout the two series of twenty-four pens, and as many
different dietaries, ^me of the exceptions, such as those where a large
quantity of bran was used, are at once explained by a consideration of the
more obvious qualities of that substance ; and many of the minor differences
by that of the different capacities of those portions of the foods which would
be digestible and available for the purposes of the animal economy ; and in
this way, as we have already noticed when speaking on the first Question, we
must account for the generally larger amount consumed with the Tbarley meal
in Series 2, than in the comparable cases with the Indian com in Series 1.

Looking to pens 1 and 2 of Series 1, where the food consisted chiefly of

the highly nitrogenous Leguminous seeds, we have comparatively very smiJl

amoants of nan -nitrogenous substance required to produce a given amoimi

of increase ; a result which at first sight appeax^ t/o lead to oonclnsicMis

oppos/ie to those from the experiments as a ^\io\a. 11 ^w^XQ^^ss^itL^fiMk

f^nmn of 6fM organic substance^ however, w^ o\»Bn^ VXi»^ >ifefe ^bbissoss^

of it in the second section of Series 1, where the Indian com predomi-
utedy and where the nitrogenous constitnents consomcd were only ahont
hilf as great as in the pens 1 and 2, are generally as small, or even smaller,
than in these two pens. It is not, then, that there was in reality a very great
prodactiveness in gross increase from a given amount of food in these two
pens, but rather only that with the large supply of available nitrogenous con-
rtituents in the Leguminous seeds, a certain amount of the non -nitrogenous
constituents have been substituted by it. It was ol>served, too, that although
all the pigs were very fat, excepting the few with an excessive allowance of
bran, yet those apparently (jrew more, where, with no deficiency of other
matters, the nitrogenous constituents were very liberally supplied. Hence
the gross increase obtained might be somewhat more nitrogenous with the
large supply of nitrogenous food ; but it would in that case, according to
some expjBriments of our own, contain a larger proportion of water, and less
of solid matter, than where more fat had been produced.

But, with the very great regularity of non-nitrogenous eqnivalent con-
samed throughout this large series of pig experiments to prodwc a fjiven
nmmnt of increase, Yf^\i2iYQ,mth(iCo\\\mn of total nitrogenous substance,
on the other hand, a difference in the amounts required, in the proportion of
from one to two, or three, or even more ; though, since all the foods used in
these experiments were ripened vegetable products, a very trifling error, if
any, can arise from representing, in all cases, the whole of the nitrogen as
eiitting as proteine compounds. And, there is throughout, a generally
larger amount of total organic substance required to yield a given amount of
gross increase, the larger the proportion in that substance of the nitrogenous
constituents.

It is seen, as has been already noticed, that where the amount of nitrogen
consamed in these pig experiments to produce a given amount of gross in-
crease is comparatively large, it is where a large proprntion of the Legumi-
nous seeds have been employed. Some writers who nave taken the i^er-cent-
ajeof nitrogenous compounds as the measure of feeding value, have recog-
nwed, and endeavoured to explain in various ways, the fact that the records
of practical feeding experiments do not award to the Leguminous seeds a
feeaing value in proportion to their richness in nitrogen ; and they have con-
cluded, that it is the accepted indications of the practical experiments, and
not the theoretical conclusions, that are at fault. Thus it has been objected
against the teachings of such experiments, that the variations in the compo-
sition of the same description of food used in different cases has woi been
detennined ; that the test has been the gross increase or loss in weight ; that
the increase may be only fat formed from starch, &c. ; that the loss in weight,
if wy, may be the result of activity, and not of defective diet ; that the food
itt w different cases has been employed in difFerent states, that is, coarse or
fine, raw or prepared ; that the animals have been variously circumstanced as
to temperature, exposure, and activity; that individual animals have verv
^•rious tendencies to increase and so on. Now we believe that not one of all
these objections can vitiate the comjiarisons which we have made, unless in-
deed, in some degree, the one which refers to the difficulty of determining
'fhether the gross increase obtained Ixj composed chiefly of fat formed frjm
the starch and oily series of compounds ; or whether of flesh from the nitro-
pooQs ones. We believe, indeed, from the many direct experiments which we
htveniade, that in reality, the composition of our domestic animals generally,
tat especially that of the gross increase of the so-caUed " fatteum^ " wvvmjaS^
oooiists of B much larger proportion of fat than is VASwaW^ wvy^^^S!^- ^^

^iimtitnted very extensive and laborious inveatigatioiv^ "m Tfe?,«tftL\ft>2w& .

^4 ^A« detaih, or even the general results of wlaicYvm\3iS^\»T^»«c^^^^

Bome future occasion ; before closing this paper, however, we propose to
call attention to a mere summary statement of one of these expenments.
But, apart from the considerations involved in the question of the vaiying
composition of increase, or from the fact that our own feeding experiments
(which, so far as we are aware, are the largest comparable series bearing upon
the point) afford testimony in the same direction, we think there is evidence
of another kind of the probable correctness of the decisions of practical ex-
periments which have thus been objected to. Thus the comparative prices
of the Leguminous seeds and the Cereal CTains, may be taken as a pretty safe
condemnation of the measurement of feeding value according to their per-
centage of nitrogenous constituents. In matters of this kind, indeed, espe-
cially when staple and generally used articles of food are concerned, the
marfcet is one of our shrewdest judges, as we shall presently endeavour a
little further to illustrate.

Whilst speaking of the comparative feeding values of the L^uminous seeds
and the Cereal grains, we may casually allude to some other considerations
of much interest bearing upon this question, which, however, we cannot in
any degree adequately discuss in this place.

As a general rule, it may be said, that weight for weight, the Leguminous
seeds contain about twice as much of the nitrogenous constituents as the
Cereal grains. We have elsewhere shown, that in a L^uminous crop, under
equal circumstances of soil and season, an acre of land will frequently yield
twice or thrice as much of nitrogenous constituents as in a Cereal grain ; and
again, that in the latter an increase of produce is not obtained except at the
cost of more nitrogen in the manure than is contained in that increase. How
is it, we would ask, if this be the case, and if really these foods are valuable
in proportion to their richness in nitrogenous constituents, that according to
the usual state of the market, we can obtain, for a given sum, about twice as
much nitrogenous substance in the Leguminous seeds as in the Cereal grain ;
or how is it, on the other hand, that the Leguminous crop does not, much
more than is in fact the case, supersede the Cereal grain in the field, the feeding
shed, or even on the table ? We have, it is true, much yet to learn of those
minor differences of composition to which is due the greater or less adapta-
tion to the instinctive wants of the system of the various constituents of which
our staple articles of food are made up, but we think that in no considerations
of this Jdnd could wc seek an adequate solution of our question. On the
other hand, we believe that in the Leguminous seeds the due proportion of
the non-nitrogenous to the nitrogenous constituents is not observed. It is
obvious, if this be the case, that in the use of the Leguminous seeds, instead
of the Cereal grains, more than was requisite of nitrogen would be taken into
the system before the adequate supply were attained of the non-nitrogenoos or
respiratory materials ; nor, as the markets go, would the relative prices of these
seeds and grains be found to interfere with a somewhat lavish use and expen*
diture of nitrogen in the former.

In the facts which are here briefly stated, we have surely veiy curioos and

interesting matter for reflection ; and we have brought to our view a striking

instance of the mutual adaptations which are eveiywhere traceable in the

practical operation of natural laws. Thus, then, we have said, that under

given circumstances, the Leguminous crop will give a much larger acreage

yield of nitrogen than the Cereal grain ; and that an increase of prodaoe of

the latter is not obtained except at the cost of more nitrogen in the maniire

£bAn ia obtained in this increased produce ; whilst in point of fact, in the or-

di^rvpnctice of rotation in this country ,tW ^5to7i\Xiol\,\v^ Lo^aminoiis com

£lhr^!^ ^^P» ynth ite large per-centase an4 o^x^jaX «aio\»iV» ^1 x£to»^gis^iik

amif freqneatlj either the direct or inmrecVi ^xitefe oi ^^ \£kicc»^gsEissQL

inpe bj which the increased Cereal is obtained ; and again, this Cereal, ob-
tained at the cost of, but with its lessened produce of nitrogen, is found in
rnctice to be of ecraal^ or of a more highly feeding value than the more
nighly nitrc^enizea Leguminous product which perhaps has been expended
to produce it. It would thus appear, therefore, that the demands of the re-
ipiratoiT function which again, more than any other, regulate the consump-
tion of food, would, in point of fact, not be satisfied in the use of the Legu-
minons diet unless by a consumption or expenditure of an amount of nitrogen
beyond that which the due bamce of the constituents of food would seem
to require ; whilst on the other hand, in the use of the Cereal grain, its better
proportion of respiratory to nitrogenous constituents has only been attained
aj the sacrifice of nitrogen expended in its growth. It would seem, there-
fore, that whether we would seek our suppli^ of respiratory food in the
direct use of the highly nitrogenized Leguminous seeds, or in the better ba-
lanoed diet of the Cereal grains, in either case the end is attained only at the
cost or expenditure of nitrogen ; in the one case, by the consumption of a
larger amount of it in the food than the due balance of constituents would
seem to require, whilst in the other this due balance has not been attained
^thont a loss of nitrogen during growth. The claims of health and na^
tanJ instinct generally leave little doubt which alternative should be adopted,
in the case of human food at least ; and it becomes us, therefore, to investi-
l&te and understand the i)ractical bearings of these curious and interesting
nctg; for upon- the principles they involve depend much for their success
those fundamental practices of the farm, — the feeding of our stock, for their
doubk products of meat and manure^ and the adaptation of our rotations.

It would appear, then, from our experiments, that taking our current food-
Btnffs as we find them, it is their supply of the ;2^i-nitrogenous, rather than of
tbeir nitrogenous constituents, which guides both the amount of food consumed,
and of increase produced by a fattening animal. When we consider the na-
ture of the respiratory process, and the large share which its demands must
oecQsarily have upon the consumption of food, it can scarcely appear sur-
prising tliat cansumptiony at least, should be chiefly regulated ov the supply
a the food of compounds rich in carbon and hydrogen, rather than nitrogen.
That the amount of increase produced should also bear a closer relationship
to the supply of these constituents than to that of the latter, does not perhaps
at first signt seem so obvious, especially if we supposed, as some writers on
this subject have done, that the amount of nitrogen in the current food of
BMui and other animals was frequeuM^ insufficient to supply the amount re-
qiured for the production or restoration of the nitrogenous products of the
animal organism. We believe, however, that a closer examination of the
ftcts would show that this exceedingly rarely happens ; and we think, more-
over, as we have aheady intimated, that in fact, that portion of nitrogen which
ia stored up in the increase of a growing, and especially of a " fattening *' animal,
ia much less than is usually supposed. We cannot in any degree adequately
^iacnsB this question in this place ; but when maintaining a greater relative
Q&portance of the n(m-nitrogenous constituents of food than is usually ac-
^ed to them, it seems somewhat pertinent briefly to adduce some evidence
in confirmation of our conclusions on this point.

. Ve propose, therefore, to give a very bnef summary of one of our expe-
riments, in which pigs were the subjects, which was undertaken chiefly for
^ purpose of asceiteining the composition of the increase of the fattening
^'ff^l; but to obtain also, some clear evidence in reference to the much"
Elated queatiOD, whether or not more fatty mattei \% ^lOT^ "o::^ \^ "^^
^Bmul iaan ia contained, as such, in its food.

Taking first the question of the eompositwn of the increase, we have in the
following table a summaiy statement of the composition of the foods em-
ployed in the experiment referred to ; and also of the pigs themselves, both
m the store, and in the fat condition ; as well as that of the increase in weight
during the fattening process, as deduced by calculation.

Table VIII.

Summary of the Per-centage Composition of the Foods enaployed — of the
Store rig, and of the Fat Pig — and also of the Increase in Live Weight of
the latter.

Description.

Dry Matter.

Mineral Matter (Ash)

Nitrogen.

Ffttty Mfttter(1)7 etlur).

Inclusive
of Ash.

Organic
only.

In Fresh
Substance.

In Dry
Substance.

In Fresh
Substance.

In Dry
Substance.

In Fresh
Substance.

1
1

In Dry
Sabataace.

%yptian Beans .

87-8
86-96
81-86
85-08

84-53
82-03
79-72

78-67

3-274
4-926
2-140
6-408

6-73
5-66
2-61
7-53

4-214

4-487
1-834
2-620

4-80
5-16
2-24

3-08

2-26
2-23
2-34

4-98

2*58
2-56
2-86
5 85

Foreign Barley...
Bran

Store or Lean Pig
PatPisr

39-70
54-74

37 03
53-09

2-67
1-65

6-73
3-01

2-20
1-75

5-54
3-19

23-32
42-20

58-74
77-09

Increase in )
Live Weight!

71-83

71-39

0-436

0-61

1-33

1-85

63*44

88-32

We may briefly explain, that, for the purposes of this experiment, two pigs
were selected resembling each other as nearly as possible* both in weight and
in every other respect. One of these was killed at once, and its composition
determined by methods which we shall fully describe on some future occasion.
The other pig, after it had been put up to fatten for a period of eight weeks
upon weighed quantities of the foods, the composition of which is given in
the upper lines of the table, and its increase in weight determined, was also
killed, and submitted to the same methods of preparation and analysis as the
former one. The composition of the two pigs — ^the one in the store and the
other in the fat condition — thus being ascertained, that of the increase in
weight was, as will be readily understood, simply a mitter of calculation.

We learn from this table (VIII.), that rather less than 40 per cent, of
the Store or Lean Pig was dry substance ; of which about 2 Jrds were mineral
matter. Of the remaining 37 por cent, of dry substance, 2*2 were nitrogen,
equal to about 14 only of proteme compounds. There is, however, of abso-
lute or dvjfat in this Store or Lean Pig, about 23^ per cent. ; or nearly t^ce
as much as of dry nitrogenous compounds.

In the Pat Pig, on the other hand, there is about 55, instead of about 40
per cent, of dry substance ; of which only l|rds, instead of 2f rds are mineral
matter. Of the remaining 53 per cent, of dry substance, only 1*75, instead
of 2*2, is nitrogen ; and this is equal, upon the entire animal, to only II,
instead of 14 per cent, of proteine compounds. We have, however, of /af,
instead of 23^ per cent., about 42 J- per cent, in this Fat Pig, or nearly double
as much as m the Lean one ; and nearly four times as much as of dry
nitrogenous compounds.

With then only about 14 per cent, of nitrogenous substance in the Lean

-/%^ and nearly twice as much fat, we have, in the fattening process, cou-

dnoted only for a few weeks, the per-centage oi m\xiet«\ T!a\\,\fex^Twi\S5»d by

'Qt oae-tbird, and that of the nitrogenoTi^aTAi»taxiQ«a\w^^^^T\.^-^sw5^

of the fa f,, on the other hand, which \n the atoxe^ Y*v^ ^^«c^^«^\b. v^

much the larger pfroportion, is nearly doubled in the Fat one. Thus, the
inciease in weight durinK the fattening process was found to contain as much
as 72 per cent, of diy smbstance, of which only 0*436 is mineral matter, and
only 1*33 nitrogen, equal to about Si^ of proteine or gelatinous compounds.
There is, however, about 68 J per cent, of fat, or nearly eight times as much
as of dry nitrogenous compounds. Indeed, it is seen in the table, that 88
per cent., or about eight-nmths of the entire dry increase of this Fat Pig, was
pure fat.

M. Boussingault, in his ' Rural Economy,' estimates that the Ox, the
Sheep, and the Pig, contain from 3^ to 4 per cent, of nitrogen ; and more
recently in his paper on the Formation of Fat in the Animal Body {Ann. d$
Cfiemie^ voL xiv. p. 444), he supposes 4 as the probable pr-centage in the
Pig. He dso states (Bural Economy), that M. rayen estimates the increase
of the fattening pig to contain about 16 per cent, of nitrogenous compounds
equal to about 2\ per cent, of nitrogen. It will be observed, however, that
only about half of these amounts of nitrogen were fomid in the direct expe-
riments of our own which we have quoted ; and it should at the same time
be remarked, that the Fat Pig in our experiment was by no means so fat as
is nsnal, at least in this country.

It is doubtless true, that other animals, as fed for the butcher, will generally
contain more flesh and less fat than the pig. In a very fat sheep, however,
fed for Christmas, and which was indeed too fat, we found a larger per-
centage of fat, and as little nitrogenous substance, as in the moderately fat
pig, whose composition has been given above. Among our experiments on
tluB subject, it was only in the case of a lean ox, that we found the nitrogen
to exceed 2\ per cent, of the entire animal ; whilst in all the cases of store
OT lean animals, the per-centage of dry fat was much greater than that of the
dij nitrogenous compounds.

The fact that fat is in so much a larger proportion than lean in the animals
fed for the butcher, would seem not only to be consistent with the results of
our experiments as to the great influence of the non-nitrogenous constituents
of the food of these animals in the production of increase during the fattening
(xooesB — ^but it indicates also the predominance of this non-nitrogenous cha-
iMter in that description of human food (butcher's meat), which is generally
Bpoken of as the most nitrogenous, and therefore the most nutritive.

That the fatty matter of the food is not the only source of the fat stored
np in the body of the fattening animal, is illustrated by a further consi-
feation of the circumstances and results of this same experiment with pigs.
Thng, in the following table are shown the amounts of Gross Dry Sub-
stance—of Mineral Matter— K)f Dry Organic Matter — of Total Non-mirO'
genoDB constituents — of Nitrogenous constituents — and of Fatty Matter,
•'owd up in the Fat Pig, for 100 lbs. of each of them consumed as food.

Table IX.

Slowing the proportion of certain constituents stored up in the Fattening Pig

for 100 of each of them consumed as food.

Expired,
Penpircd,
or Voided.

Constitoenta.

6f088 dry Babstanoe

Mineral matter

Total dry organic matter .

Hfou'DitrogenonB oon^tf tnenta

/NltrcgenouB oonatitnenta

ffkt^matter

Ckmsamed

Food.

100

100
100
100
100
100

Stored up

in the

AoimaL

84*96
97-81

It may be observed, that in the case of the experiment with this single pig,
the amomits of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous constituents requirea to
produce a given amount of increase — though nearly the same as the averages
of the 24 pens, as given at the foot of Table VII. — ^were greater, than in many
of the cases with the better foods. Hence, the quantities of the various con-
stituents, represented in Table IX. as stored up in this pig for 100 of each of
them consumed, are less than they would be in many of the other experi-
ments. We believe, however, that the figures in the Table (IX.)may be trusted
in their general indications ; and attention may therefore be called in passing
to the fact, that for 100 of each consumed, there is of the total dry substance
little more than 15 stored up in the animal; of the mineral matter, little
more than 2 per cent ; and of the nitrogenous constituents, about 8 Jrd per
cent.

Again a glance at the Table shows how very much larger is that propor-
tion of every constituent of the food — excepting fatty matter — which was
expired, perspired, or voided, i.e.^ which was expended in merely keeping in
working order the hving mechanism, than that which is stored up in the
animal as increase. Of fat^ however, it appears that there was nearly four
times as much stored up in the animal, as there was of fatty matter ready
formed in the food. There was then, in this experiment, a considerable
formation of fat in the animal body.

As is seen in the Table (IX.), for every 100 lbs. of gross diy substance
consumed as food, only about 15 lbs. were stored up in the animal; and about
85 lbs. expired, perspired or voided. It may be convenient here to show in a
tabular form, the composition of this 15*04 of total dry increase obtained by
the consumption of 100 of total dry matter as food.

Table X.

Mineral matter

0-09

1-67

13-28

1 Nitroflrenous sabstanoe ............

1 Non-nitrogenous sabstanoe (fat)

Total increase

15-04
84-96

Expired, perspired or voided ...

Total dry matter consumed

100*00

It must not be concluded, however, that only 15 per cent, of the dry %ub-
stance of the food was employed in the production of the 15 parts stored ap
in the fat pig. Thus, in Table X. we see, that, of the 15"04 of gross dry
increase produced from 100 of gross diy food consumed, 18'8 wetefat; and
from Table IX. we learn, that only one-fourth of this fat could have been
derived from fatty matter ahready formed in the food. As then only one-
fourth, or about 8-3 parts of the 13-3 of pure fat, was already formed in the
food, about 10 parts out of the 15 of dry animal substance mpdaoed, would
be fat formed in the body from some other constituents. We may primps
safely reckon, that at least 2^ parts of starch, or the other n0;i-nitrogeQoii8
compounds of food, would be required for the formation of one part of &&•
It is true, that less than 2jt of starch, &c., would contain all the oonstitnentB
of one part of fat ; but when we consider, that in the oonyeiBioii of the
staivh series of oompoxmd& into fat a large quantity of oxygen is ftliminftf^^
wbioh we majr assume would not leave the bo&j exQe^mQcns&iiaJa^
*^A^to3gr that would otherwise serve the leBipVntor} y^qq^b^*^ "v^s^ ^mbl
'oab/^ that more tban 2^ parte of otlier con&t&T3«sa\A^llwi

poided in the direct prodnction in the animal body of one part of fat. At
any rate, we are safe in assuming this amonnt for oar present purpose, in the
luence of more exact knowledge than is at conmiand on the nature of the
intermediate changes to which the constituents of food arc subject in their
pasBage through the body. If , then, we suppose, that the starch series — ^rather
tihan the proteine compounds— -of the food, served for the formation of the
fat in the animal body, it follows, that about 25 parts of these were expended
ia the formation of the 10 parts of produced fat. If now we add to this
tmonnt of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food not fat, the 3|rd parts
which were fatty matter already formed, and also the 1 Jrds of the increase
which was not fat, it would appear, that at least 80 parts of the 100 of dry
sabstance consumed, must have been directly employed in the production of
the 15 only of dry animal increase. It is obvious, too, from the nature of the
chemical change by which fat would be formed from the starch series of
compounds, tluit the extra 15 of the 80 parts of the dry substance of the
food^ which were expended in the direct production of the 15 of dry increase,
would not serve any useful purpose in the respiratory process of the fattening
animal. And, unless, indeed, we were to assume — that in the more direct use
(rf the starch series of compounds as respiratory matter, their oxygen was
eliminated only in combination with respiratory material — and that when em-
ployed in the production oifat it was not so — it would appear, that not only
DMBt this proauced fat have been obtained at the cost of respiratory material
expended by the fattening animal which produced it — but that it is, at any
rate, not in the amount oi respiratory material thus obtained, that there can
l)e any gain in this conversion by the fattening animal of a given amount of
compounds of lower respiratory and fat-forming capacity, into fat to serve
as human food, of which it is the most concentrated of the respiratory con-
Btitnents.

If, then, as we have seen, so large a proportion as nearly Jrd of the dry
substance of the food of the fattening pig may be employed in the direct
production of increase — and we have reason to suppose that frequently more
than this is so employed — ^we think that the deviations from uniformity in the
wnounts of non-nitrogenous constituents consumed by a given weight of
>uuma], within a given time, as shown in our tables, will be admitted to be
even less than might have been expected in so extensive and varied a series
of experiments — and to be, by no means such, as to raise any question as to
rtether or not, it was the supphes of the respiratory and fat-forming, rather
^an the flesh-forming constituents of the foods, which determined the
anK)Qnts consumed.

But to recur to the question of thQ formation of fat in the animal body.
]^e believe that such a formation, even to a considerable, and practically
important extent, is demonstrated by the results of the experiments ^vith pigs
^ given ; and there is every reason to beheve, that it is the starch and other
^-nitrogenous constituents of the food that contribute mainly, if not en-
^ly, to this formation.

At one time MM. Dumas and Boussingault maintained that the formation
^ fat in the animal body was improbable ; and others have done so more re-
P^ly. Since that time, however, both M. Boussingault and M. Persoz have
^ituted direct experiments in reference to this question. In the course of
^W experiments they found a A&clA^ formation of fat ; and most probably
'lom the starch series of compounds.

U. BouflEdngauU; made wamerom experiments of afiom<^^\^\)^^<^\^\^\

^ daokB; from which it appeared, tliat fat might \)e loim!^ Vsi^^ \x^

Ate oilwr Mon'Ditn^fenona constitnents of food, aiidpio\s6XA^ tesaiTS!iawB&-

nous compounds also. He also experimented with pigs, in a manner somewh^
similar to that adopted by ourselves ; and it is a curious circumstance, th^^
his starey or lean pig, contained almost identically the same per-cent8^ <r^
fat as our own. The foods he employed were, however, far inferior in fattea-^
ing quality. Hence, though his experiments extended over a much longer:^
period of time, the per-centage of fat in hi^fat nig ^'as scarcely 5 percent^
higher than in his lean one ; whilst almost the whole of this imreasedini had
been supplied by fatty matter in the food. It was indeed mainly upon a
calculation of the fat which had been supphed in the food of the stare pig,
that he found the evidence of the formation of fat in his experiments wiS
pigs. M. Boussingault is disposed to believe, that the nitrogenous con-
stituents of food probably have some considerable influence in ih^fonnatum
of fat in the animal body. We have ourselves called attention to the fact^
that a large supply of the nitrogenous constituents of the food would seem
to replace a relative deficiency of other constituents. The amount of increase
is found, however, to bear a rapidly decreasing ratio to the amount of nitrogen
in the food when this exceeds a somewhat narrow limit ; wliilst the compositicm
of such increase would appear to contain a less proportion of fat. Whether
therefore any effect of an excess of nitrogenous compounds in the produc-
tion of increase be due merely to the amounts they contain of certam non-
nitrogenous elements, or to the influence of the nitrogenous compounds them-
selves as such, in increasing the activity of some of the vital processes, and thus
aiding the production of fat, or whether any increase due to the nitrogenous
constitueute in the food is more generally not fat at all, may be considered
to be an open (question.

In the expermients made by M. Persoz, geese were the animals he operated
upon, and maize the food employed. He found a decided /(?rfw^l/M^n of fat;
and apparently from the starch series of compounds.

We repeat, then, tliat we believe that the forniatian of fat in the animal
hodyy even to a considerable and practically important extent, and most
probably from the starch series of compounds, may now be considered to be
clearly proved. It would appear, therefore, that the theoretical opinions of
Baron Liebig on this point are fully borne out.

We have thus far only aUuded to the feeding of fattening animals ; and we
think that the results which have been brought forward clearly indicate, that
with them at least, as our current food-stuffs go, both the amount consumed,
and the increase poduced^ are regulated more by the supplies of the more
pecuharly respiratory and fat-forming constituents, than of the flesh-forming
or nitrogenous ones. We have, however, calculated many human dietaries ;
and this branch of the subject we bope to enter upon more fully on some future
occasion. We may, however, remark in passing, that from tne results of this
inauiry, as well as from a consideration of the management of the animal
boay undergoing somewhat excessive labour, as for instance, the hunting
horse, the racer, the cab-horse, and the fox-hound, and also pugilists and
runners, we are led to beheve, tliat in the cases, at least of ordinary exercise
of force, the exigencies of the respiratory system keep pace more nearly wiUi
the demand for nitrogenous constituents of food thim is usually supposed ;
and in fact, that the exigencies of the animal body are much more correctly
stated in the following sentences by Professor Liebig, tlum in those wherein
he has attached so much more of importance to the amounts of the nitio-
genouB oonBtitnentSy as the measure of the comparative value of foods.
At mge 814 of the Srd edition of hia GhenAc«iliiAX«^\»«K3%\--
''* ^ * It 28 evident that the anaouut oi noTvrisaKni'aiXiTWJ^^ «.^

for its support must be in a direct ratio with the quantity of oxygen taken
into its system/^

And again at page 322 : —

" But the waste of matter, or the force exerted, always stands in a certain
relation to the consumption of oxygen in respiration ; and the Quantity of
oxygen taken up in a given time determines in all seasons, and in all climates,
the amount of food necessary to restore the equilibrium."

A somewhat concentrated supply of nitrogen does, however, in some cases,
seem to be required when the system is overtaxed ; as for instance, when
day by day, more labour is demanded of the animal body than it is compe-
tent without deterioration to keep up ; and perhaps also, in the human boay,
when under excitement or excessive mental exercise. It must be remembered,
however, that it is in butcher's meat, to which is attributed such high flesh-
forming capacity, that we have also, in the fat which it contains, a large pro-
portion of respiratory material of the most concentrated kind. It is found
too, that of the dry substance of the egg^ 40 per cent, is pure fat.

A consideration of the habits of those of the labouring classes who are
under- rather than over-fed, will show, that they first have recourse to fat
meat, such as pork, rather than to those which are leaner and more nitroge-
nous ; thus perhaps indicating, that the first instinctive call is for an increase
of the respiratory constituents of food. It cannot be doubted, however, that
the higher classes do consume a larger proportion of the leaner meats ;
though it is probable, as we have said, that even with these as well as pork,
more fat, possessing a higher respiratory capacity than anv other constituent
of food, is taken into the system than is generally imc^ined. Fat and butter,
indeed, may be said to have about twice and a half the respiratory capacity
of starch, sugar, &c. It should be remembered, too, that the classes which
consume most of the leaner meats, are also those which consume the most
butter, sugar, and in many cases, alcoholic drinks also.

It is further worthy of remark, that wherever labour is expended in the
manufacture of staple articles of food, it has generally for its object the con-
centration of the ??^n-nitrogenous, or more peculiarly respiratory constituents.
Sugar, butter, and alcoholic drinks are notable instances of this. Cheese,
wMch at first sight might appear an exception, is in reaUty not so ; for those
cheeses which bring the highest price are always those which contain the
most butter ; whilst butter itself is always dearer than cheese.

In conclusion, it must by no means be understood that we would in any
way demeciate the value of even a somewhat liberal amount of nitrogen in
food, we believe, however, that on the current views too high a relative
impoirtanoe is attached to it ; and that it would conduce to further progress
in this most important field of enquiry if the prevailing opinions on the sub-
ject were somewhat modified.

AGfBICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

PIG FEEDING.

By J. B. LAWES,

OF ROTHAMSTED.

LONDON

MDCCCLIV.

-»«. PRIKTBD BT DUKK dt CHIDOET, 1S5 & 157, KlNQSLAND BOA.D, LONDOK, E.
**' 1889.

PBOM THB
JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCISTT OF ENGLAND.

Vol. XIV., Part IL

(3)

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.

PIG FEEDING.

!>' a fonner number of this Journal we published a paper under
the title of * SJieep Feeding and Manure^ in which we gave the
amount of Increase in Live weight of Animal^ obtained by the
consninption of known quantities of food of various kinds — the
chemical composition of such food being also given — and we
promised to follow up the subject in our next with an account,
first, of the Compositian of the Ificrease in Live weighty and af ter-
^rds, of that of the Manure obtained. The main object, indeed,
01 the investigation — as stated both at the conmiencement and
L'onclusion of that paper — was, to illustrate the general economy
o' the feeding process, as one of the great features of farming
Fracth; that is to say, as producing Manure as well as Meat,
^ther than as comparmg one food with another in regard to its
ff^ing value merely.

Sheep had at that time received the greatest share of our
attention; and, owing to the difficulty and labour involved in ex-
tending the field of experiment in like detail to other animals, it
^ intended, if possible, to complete our subject of Meat and
^^^we-malcifijg by almost exclusive reference to the animals
^hich had given the title to our paper. The further we pro-
^J^^sed, however, the more were we convinced, that in spite of
r® difficulties and necessary postponement of publication, the
^^uiiy must be extended to other animals, to enable us at all
^isfactorily to explain the connection between the composition
?^ the food consumed by farm stock generally, and that of the
"^^^ease, and manure, obtained.

. 'iewing the feeding process as one of the chief means of obtain-
^ manurej it is of tne utmost importance that the farmer should
7 possessed of some principles by which to judge of the produc-
t|ve power of such manure, especially in relation to the compo-
^tion and value of the food consum«i. And, as in this country
^ere is employed a constantly increasing amount both of pur-
cljased and saleable food, and of artificial manures, it is essential
that the fanner should possess a clearer conception of the prin-
ciples both of Feeding and of Manurifig,

The importance of such general propositions in agriculture
cannot be over-estimated; nor will they be undervalued when

4 Agrkultural Chemistry. — Pkj Feeding.

farmers more clearly recognise and appreciate the influence of
chemical composition in determining the value of manure, and
how far it is a question merely of eronomy^ whether the fertility
of the soil shall be kept up by manures produced in the yard
and the stall, or by those which are purchased in the market.
We do not mean to say that it is unimportant in what state, or
in what manner, a manure is suppHed, but in illustration of the
general truth which we would have kept in view, we may here call
attention to the fact which we have frequently noticed, namely,
that a crop of wheat, of more than the average yield of the neigh-
bourhood under the ordinary course of cultivation, has for several
successive years been grown in the same field on this farm, by
the supply of pure elipmiml salts alone. Let it, then, we repeat,
l)e clearly understood, that, in a certain point of view, it is a
matter of indifference whether we purchase food for cattle, or direct
manures — and that in some respects therefore the two classes of
manures can to a great extent mutually replace each other.

Let this be a settled idea in the farmer's mind, and he will
more clearly see the importance of a better understanding of the
feeding process, and also of those circumstances whicli must
determine the economy of the mutual sutetitution of artificial
manures and those derived from the fattening animal.

Li prosecuting our inquiries into the general laws of Meat
and Manure-making^ we have found it necessary to extend our
experiments from Sheep, as at first undertaken, to Oxen and
Pigs.

Our results, in relation to both these descriptions of animal,
as well as the sheep, will eventually be considered in reference
to Manure as well as Increase ; but we think it desirable to bring
forward the whole of the feeding experiments, before entering
upon those relating to manure. In pursuance of this plan, a
portion of the present paper on Pig feediiuj was actually in
type nearly three years ago, w^hen that subject was somewhat pro-
mmently before the agricultural public ; but owing to other en-
gagements, its completion has necessarily been delayed until the
present time.

The necessity of including Pigs in an inquiry relating to the
production of meat and manure on the farm, is further seen when
we come to consider the character of the food supplied to them.
Compared with that of sheep or bullocks, its dry substance
consists, weight for weight, of much more highly nutritive
vegetable products, and it is consequently generally much
more costly to purchase. Thus, whilst the food of fattening
sheep or oxen, is principally composed of grass, hay, and
roots, with a comparativelj- small proportion of cake or com,
that of the pig, whose digestive apparatus is very differently

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding, 5

constituted, is almost exclusively corn, or coutains scarcely any
indigestible woody-fibre, and abounds more largely in starch,
fatty matters, and nitrogenous compounds. \Vc should expect,
then, a very different rate of increase in relation to gross weight
of dry fooa consumed in the two cases ; whilst in the excrements
of the pig we should look for a manure commensurate with the
cost and richness of the food which has been its source.

Setting aside what may be termed the incidental food of the
pig, such as wash, potatoes, and other roots, it may be said that
his staple fattening foods in England are the legiiminaus seeds ^ such
as beans, peas, tares, and lentils, all of which are characterised
by containmg a high per-centage of nitrogenous compomids ;
and, in still larger quantity, some of the grains — especially
Jffr/^^— the inferior qualities of which are almost exclusively
devoted to his use.

The gi^ains, as compared with the leguminous seeds, contain
scarcely half the quantity of nitrogenous compounds, upon which
80 materially depends the quality of the manure ; but they abound
much more in starch and other wo/t-nitrogcnous comix)unds,
^hich are believed to provide the chief of the respiratory and
fat-fonning food of the animal. The quantity of actual faftg-
^tter in the two classes of foods is variable ; but it is on an
^^erage rather greater in the grains than in the leguminous

Pollard and b^ra?i are also much used as pig-foods. They

^ntain a large amount of woody-fibre ; but the bran more espe-

^'^Uy contains a much higher per-centage both of nitrogen and

f ffitty-matter than the entire grain from which it has been

derived.

Of the several articles of food enumerated above, barley is

^doubtedly most in favour as the fattening food of the pig ; but

^ nitrogen is so important a constituent in manure^ and as barley,

*^ we have said, contains scarcely half so much of this substance

^ the leguminous seeds, it is evidently a matter of importance

^ consider, whether the latter might not advantageously l)e

?^ployed more largely than at present — even supposing that

^^^ley had some slight superiority, so far as the animal alone

'''''te concerned.

.. That the profit of feeding, indeed, is to be sought within the
^*Uit8 of the value of the manure, and that it is, therefore, much
?^]pendent on the quality of the latter, and, consequently, on the
Judgment exercised in the selection of the foods, and the manage-
^^nt of the animals and of the manure — is a \iew which seems
^ be supported at once by the convergent testimony of current
experience, and by a consideration of the laws which regulate the
P^nce of all articles in general use. Admitting that the prices of

B 2

6 Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

all such articles are regulated by the cost of prodiiction, and that
they cannot long either be produced at a loss, or be sold at a
price which will yield more than a fair profit upon the capital
and labour employed in their production — and, applying this
view to the subject before us, we should certainly decide, that the
selling price of the meat alone produced upon the farm must be
less than that of the food consumed — and that the profit of the
feeding process is to be found in the remaining proauct, namely,
in those parts of the food which ai*e rejected by the animal, and
whicli, under the title of Manure, give fresh fertility to the soil,
and thus supply a second product for the market.

Were it true, indeed, that as a rule the difference between the
purchasing and selling price of the fattening animal was equal to, or
more, than the cost oi his food, it is evident that the profit of the
feeding process would cease to depend, as at present supposed,
only upon the united value of meat and manure — and the latter
might then be obtained, in any quantity, free of expense ! On
such a supposition as this, the economical employment of im-
ported ana artificial manures would, of course, be at an end ;
and, unless the rule applied equally. to the consumption of the
expensive green crops, as to purchased and saleable food, it
might even be a question whether the principles of rotation were
not entirely fallacious, and its practice ruinous !

Much as we anticipate that careful scientific investigation will
conduce to the improvement of our national agriculture, we are far
from expecting any important revolution in the main principles
involved in the current practice of the best farmers. On the other
hand, it is our firm conviction, that it is to a more thorough and
generally diffused understanding of those principles — such as shall
ensure the more complete fulfilment, in the daily practices of the
farm, of the ends they are calculated to attain — ^that we must look
for any such improvement. Far be it from us to assert that the
mutual relationship between breeding, feeding, manuring, and
the growth of green crops and of com, as already fixed by expe-
rience, will always remam as at present. That this relationship
will be subject to fluctuation, or even to modifications of a more
permanent kind — as the result, as well of the progress of know-
ledge as of causes of a commercial character — we do not doubt ;
but we would have it more generally understood, that the most
legitimate and useful province of agricultural chemistry, at least
for the present, is to investigate and explain the recognised
practices of the day, and thereby provide such data for the
guidance of the intelligent farmer as shall enable him more fully
and economically to carry out the principles therein involved.

In the arrangement of our experiments on the feeding of Pigs^
it was our object to ascertain, not only the amount of increase

Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding, 7

obtainable from a given quantity of certain approved foods, but
to determine the most advantageous proportion of the highly
nitrogenous foods to those which are less so ; and within what
limits this proportion may be varied with a view to the quality
of the manure, and at the same time consistently with the profit-
able progress of the animal. With this view, the selection of the
foods in the First Series of experiments was considered less in
reference to their cost than to their composition, it being desired
to provide such as contrasted strongly with each other in this
respect. It was thought that greater definiteness of result would
thus be attained ; and that the principle once elicited by this
means, the more economical substitutes for the foods employed,
ooald afterwards be easily pointed out. Thus : —

As the highly nitrogenous food— a mixture of equal weights of
Beans and Lentils^ was employed.

As the comparatively /ww-nitrogenous food — Indian corn meal.

As providing a large amount of inert woody fibre — a consti-
tuent apparently so essential in the food of the ruminant—
Bran.

Before entering upon the detail of the experiments it may be
remarked, tiiat it was not the object of them to compare one
breed of pigs with another ; nor are they calculated to determine
the several practical points — such as the most profitable age for
rapid fattenmg, &c. ; so that, after giving a fufl account of the
circumstances of our own experiments, we must leave it to the
intelligent reader to decide how far the results obtained by us are
to be reached, or improved upon, under the perhaps different
circumstances of his own practice.

In the selection of animals, it was only sought to get such as
resembled one another in character, age, and weight, in the several
pens ; and, with this view, a competent person was employed to
go to the various styes and markets in the neighbourhood to pur-
chase animals suited to our object.

It would have been quite impossible to collect, and accurately
weigh and sample for analysis, the excrements throughout the
whole of so extensive a set of experiments as that we are about to
describe ; and it was determinea, therefore, to devote a few ani-
mals separately to the subject of manure as well as increase.
These were placed upon rafters, which allowed the excrements to
pass through upon a sheet of zinc below, and to be collected for
analysis as described in our paper on "Sheep-feeding." In the
other cases the animals were kept well littered with straw, in
pens 7 feet by 8 feet, which were fitted up for the purpose in a
spacious bam. The food was, of course, in all cases accurately
weighed ; and the animals themselves were put into the scales
every fourteen days.

Ayricultural Chemis&y. — Piy Feeding.
Experiments with Pigs — Series L

For this Series, which comprised 12 pens of 3 pigs each, 40
animals were purchased, as nearly as possible of the same cha-
racter, and all supposed to be about 9 or 10 months old. They
were bought in three separate lots, of 6, 20, and 14 respectively,
between January 22nd and February 2nd, 1850. On tne latter
day they were all weighed, marked, and allotted, 8 to each of the
12 pens, in such manner as to get as nearly as possible the same
weight in each pen. As will be supposed, this distribution by
iveights alone, did not secure animals of sufficiently equal feeding
quality in the several pens. On the following day, therefore, they
were changed from pen to pen, so as to provide as much as pos-
sible a similarity in this respect between pen and pen, and at the
same time to retain a near equality in weight also. This being
done, the weights stood as follows : —

Table I.
(Experments with Pigs. — Series I.)

Showing the Weights of the Pigs (in Pounds), when aUotted to the Pens,

February 3, 1850.

Nob. of

Pen

Pgn

Pen

the Pigs.

lbs.

IbH.

146

142

140

133

132

130

129

131

130

121

122

115

123

124

133

124

128

115

112

113

115

122

121

117

119

120

129

Total
weights

[379

380

370

378

382

373

877

879

874

of 3 pigs

The allotment thus completed, the whole were supplied with
as much as they chose to eat, of a mixture of one part bean-meal,
one part lentil-meal, two parts Indian-corn meal, and four parts
bran, these being the articles fixed upon for the subsequent expe-
riment. Upon this mixture all were kept for 12 days, prior to
commencing with the exact experiment, in order that they might
become accustomed to their new situation, and reconciled to their
new companions ; for, in the allotment, the various purchases had
necessarily been intermixed, in some cases greatly to the disap-
probation and discomfort of the individuals of those purchaaeiL
For a time constant quarrels ensued, and the molestea animab
frequently jumped from pen to pen, until they fell in with their
former associates. Indeed, at first, it was no uncommon occnr-
rence, after they had been left for some time, to find some pens
almost deserted, and others crowded. The use of the whip was
found to be very efficacious in settling these disputes, and at
length, all seeming to live amicably together, the exact experi-

Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

ment was commenced on February 14th, twelve days after the
first allotment.

As would be expected, the increase during this preliminary
period was far from uniform — those pigs having flourished most
which had fallen in for the lion's share, whilst the weaker ones,
which had been obhged to sulk in the rear until their more power-
ful companion had indulged to the full, clearly indicated their
misfortunes by their weights. After that time, however, very
little irregularity occurred from this cause, vigilant care being
taken that each animal should have his share of food ; and it soon
liappeiied, that the mere approach of the whip was sufficient to
awe the pugnacious delinquent into humble retreat, while his
weaker neighbour, in his turn, took precedence at the trough.
These ill-tempers, though at first very troublesome, give way
surprisingly by a little perseverance ; and the evil of them, in a
course of comparative experiments, is, after all, much less than
in submitting to a faulty allotment.

The results of the second weighings, when the exact experi-
ment was commenced, namely, on Febniary lUh, are given
below :—

Table II.
(Experiments with Pigs. — Series I).

Showing the Weight (in Pounds) gained during the twelve days of the pre-
^^^ary period ; and also the actual Weights at the commencement of the
^^^ ^periment on February 14 , 1850.

1
2
3

TotAls

Penl

IbB.
30
14
17

lbs.
176
135
129

440

Pen 2

IbBL
11

lbs.
157
142
128

422

Pens

3
03

lbs,
21
16
15

•a'

s •

•5.0

lb8.
163
131
128

422

Pen 4

a ^

lbs.
31
8
10

Ibfi.
173
131
123

427

Pen 6

lbs.
28
5
20

lbs.
168
128
135

431

Pen 6

c
cj2

Ibt}.
24
21
22

Ibd.
157
144
144

445

Totals

Pen 7

Pen 8

Pen 9

Pen 10

PenU

Penl2

148
126
141

13
11
26

145
144
143

18
11

156
142
130

149
138
129

6
22
16

137
150
136

19
16
21

149
130
150

415

432

428

416

423

429

y^ glance at this table, by the side of the former one, will show
^^ the gross weight in each pen was not nearly so uniform at

10 Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

the second weighing as at the first. This irr^ularity is indeed
undesirable ; but is perhaps as small as we can hope for in any
extensive experiments in which we have to deal with the subtle
principle of animal life.

We have already stated that the articles of food selected for
the First Series of experiments were —

1. A mixture of equal parts of Bean and Lentil meal, this
being taken as the highly nitrogenous food.

2. Indian corn-meal, as containing, compared with the former,
only a small quantity of nitrogen, but a comparatively large
amount of the non-nitrogenous substances of the starch series,
and also more of fatty matter. It is these various non-nitrogenous
substances that are supposed more peculiarly to serve for the
respiratory process, and for the formation of fat in the animal body.

8. Bran— characterised as containing a considerable amount of
inert woody fibre and mineral matter, and comparatively but
little of starch, sugar, and the like ; it is not, however, ddicient
either in nitrogenous or fatty matters, being in these respects
intermediate between the other two descriptions of food.

From these three standard food stuffs, twelve dietaries were
arranged, as follows : —

Pen 1. Bean and Lentil mixture, ad libitum.

Pen 2. 2 lbs. per pig per day of Indian-corn meal ; and Bean

and Lentil mixture, ad libitum.
Pen 3. 2 lbs. of Bran per pig per day ; and Bean and Lentil

mixture, ad libitum.
Pen 4. 2 lbs. of Indian -corn meal, and 2 lbs. of Bran per pig

per day ; and Bean and Lentil mixture, ad libitum.
Pen 6. Indian-corn meal, ad libitum.
Pen 6. 2 lbs. of Bean and Lentil mixture per pig per day ; and

Indian-corn meal, ad libitum.
Pen 7. 2 lbs. Bran per pig per day ; and Indian-corn meal, ad

libitum.
Pen 8. 2 lbs. Bean and Lentil mixture, and 2 lbs. of Bran per

pig per day ; and Indian-corn meal, ad libitum.
Pen 9. 2 lbs.* of Bean and Lentil mixture per pig per day ; and

Bran, ad libitum.
Pen 10. 2 lbs.* of Indian-corn meal per pig per day; Bran, ad

libitum.
Pen 11. 2 lbs. Bean and Lentil mixture, and 2 lbs. Indian-corn

meal per pig per day ; Bran, ad libitum.
Pen 12. Bean ana Lentil mixture, Indian-corn meal, and Bran,

each separately, and ad libitum.

* Increased to 3 lbs. after the first period of 14 dajB.

Agricultural ChemUitry. — Pig Feeding. 11

It will be seen, that by the arrangement of allowing a fixed and
limited amount of one description of food, and another descrip-
tion to be taken ad libitum, a great variety in the proportions of
the different classes of constituents is attained. And it will be
readily understood, that — as in every case the animals were per-
mittea to fix for themselves the limit of their consumption
aooording to their natural wants and inclinations — ^and as the
amount and composition of the food consumed was in each
case known — ^the results obtained, would afford us the means of
deciding, whether or not this limit of consumption, had been
fixed by any common demand for either class of constituents
which the food supplied.

But to explain the plan a httle further. In the first 4 pens
the highly nitrogenous Bean and Lentil mixture is given ad
Ubitum ; m Pen 1, without any other food ; in Pen 2, with a
limited quantity of Indian-corn meal ; in Pen 3, with a limited
amount of Bran ; and in Pen 4, with a limited quantity both of
Indian-corn meal and of Bran.

In Pens 6, 6, 7, and 8, the comparatively deficiently nitro-
g^oos, but more highly starchy and fatty food, Indinn-c^rn meal
is given ad libitum ; in Pen 5 alone ; in Pen 6, with a limited
amount of the Bean and Lentil mixture ; in Pen 7, with a limited
amount of Bran ; and in Pen 8, with a limited amount both of
the Bean and Lentil mixture, and of Bran.

In Pens 9, 10, 11, and 12, Bran is the food given ad libitum,
bnt in no case alone ; thus, in Pen 9, it is with a limited quantity
of the Bean and Lentil mixture ; in Pen 10, with a limited amount
of Indian-corn meal ; in Pen 11, with a limited amount both of
the Bean and Lentil mixture and of Indian-corn meal ; and in
Pen 12, with both the Bean and Lentil mixture, and the Indian-
corn meal, but, as before said, neither in this case given in
limited quantity, each of the three descriptions of food being put
into a separate trough, and the pigs allowed to take of either or
all at their discretion.

In all cases the animals were fed three times a-day ; namely,
earlv in the morning, at noon, and about 5 o'clock. The Hmited
food, if any, was mixed with a small quantity of that which was
given ad libitum in the first two feeds of the day. Great care
waa taken in the management of the supply of food, both that the
tronghs shonld generally be cleared out before fresh food was
pat into them, and that the pigs should always have a liberal
sapply within their reach ; and this, with a little attention and
practice, was easily attained.

The pigs themselves were each weighed fortnightly ; and the
exact experiment extended over four such periods ; namely, 8

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding.

weeks in all ; at the termination of the feeding experiment all
were killed ; and the weights of the carcass, and of the total
offal — and indeed of all the separate parts of it — were taken in
each case. The slaughtering results will, however, not be given
in the present paper ; but will be reserved until w^e treat of the
general question of the * Composition of Animal Bodies,^

In Table III., which folWs, are given the particulars of the
increase in weight, &c., of this First Series of Pigs.

Table III.
(Experiments w^ith Pigs. — Series I).

Showing the Gain in Weight (in lbs.) upon each of the 12 different Dietaries,
of each Pig, and of each Pen of 'Ihree Pigg^ daring each period of 14 Days,
and daring the entire experimental period of 8 Weeks.

NnH

Penl

B^^ana and LenUlu (eqaal parts) Ad Libitum.

Pen 2

2 lbs. Indian Meal fer Pig per Day :
Beans and Lentils (equal parts) Ad Libitiim.

of Pig8.

liit

Period,

14 Days.

and

Period,

14 Days.

8rd

Period.

14 Days.

4th

Period,

14 days.

Total

Period,

8 Weeks.

1st

Period,

14 Days.

and

Period.

14 Days.

8rd

Period,

14 Days.

4tll

Period.

14 Days,

Total

Period,

8 Weeks.

2
3

27
26
24

82
24
27

22
24
26

22
20
29

103

106

37
28
31

33
26

32
23

32
11
19

136

105

3 pigs

303

336

Pen 8

a lbs. Bran per Pig per Dav :
Beans and Lentils (equal partis) Ad Libitum.

Pen 4

a lbs. Indian Meal, a lbs. Bran, per Pig

per Dav;

Beans and Lentils (equal parts) Ad Lfbitnni.

1
2
3

29
26

15
16
29

16
3
3

76
52
72

37
14

26
19
13

38
16
23

126
67
60

3 pigs

200

252

Pen 6

Indian Meal Ad Libitum.

Pen 6

a lbs. Beans and Lentils per Pic per D«7 :
Indian Meal Ad Ewtrnn.

1
2
3

31
15
12

6
13
17

40
13
19

19
13
23

96
54
71

29
32

26
22

25
16
18

26
16
80

106

3 pigs

221

298

Agrirultural Chemistry, — Piy Feeduuf,

Table 111. — continued.

Pen 7

9 Dm. Bnn per Pig por Day :
Indian Meal Ad Ubitam.

Pen 8

a Ibe. Beans and r^entils. and 1 lb». Bran

per Pi< per Dav :

Indian Meal Ad Libitiun.

2
S

18
15
33

33
18
37

29
17
37

21
15
36

101

143

41
30
34

38
22
27

29
18
20

34
29
25

142

106

pigs

309

105

347

Pen 9

1 Iba.* Beam and Lentils (eqnal partA) per

Pig per Day ;

Bran Ad Libitum.

7
2
0

2
16

49 ,

6 ;

45 I

100

Pen 10

a Ibn.* Indian Meal per Pij; per Day ;
Bran Ad Libitum.

—8

10
3

13
16
12

-11

10
10
13

27
44
43

114

PenU

Pen 12

a Dm. Bmuu and Lentils, a lbs. Indian Meal, 1

Bran, Bean* and Lentib). and Indian Meal.

nsr n% por i/ay;
Bran Ad Libitxun.

each Ad Libitum.

114

Pi^

178

1
95

254

. In this Table we have the particulars of the progress of each

f?S» and it is therefore deserving of some few remarks ; though,

J^ effects of the different foods must be estimated rather by the

^?"^^ result of the pn of 3 pigs than by the progress of any

l^^^gle animal. Casting the eye over the figures showing the

^OTease in weight of different animals in the same pen, with

» *^e and the same description of food, it is at once seen, that all

2^^^ not progressed alike under these supp(^ed similar circum-

^^^ces. Some of the apparent discrepancies were easily ac-

?^^Uited for by some incidental circumstance in the character or

^^Ith of the animal ; and in such cases the strictness of the

.^^ -Alt of the entire pen is, of course, in some degree interfered
jT^^jh. It is therefore necessary not to overlook these particulars

Jxidging of the effects of any particular food.

An the majority of cases, however, we believe that the differ-

♦ Increased to 3 Ihs. after the first Period.

14 Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding,

ences in the progress of the pigs allotted together in the same
pen and with the same food, arise from general differences of
constitution ; and if the irregularity in this respect were ec^ual
in every pen, it would certainly be an advantage, for our object
is not to show the extraordinary increase of picked animals, but
the probable average result obtainable from pigs which have
been bred or selected for fattening with ordinary care and judg-
ment. Indeed, as already observed, our chief object in the allot-
ment was to get a variation of quality within each pen, with
similarity between pen and pen in this respect ; and the observa-
tions which were made at the end of the experiment, when the
pigs were killed, clearly showed, that whilst on the same food,
some had increased considerably in frame as well as flesh and
fat, others had apparently accumulated fat almost exclusively.
These variations of result, then, we attribute chiefly to the dif-
ferent constitutional tendencies of the animals. But, at the same
time, though very great care was taken to prevent it, we do not
pretend to say, that where the limited food was very decidedly
of better quality than the remainder, the stronger animals did not
sometimes obtain an advantage over the weaker ones. Perhaps
in one or two instances, therefore, one pig in a pen may have
done better, and another worse, than would have resulted from a
due share of the allotted food. Supposing this to have been the
case, however, it is still by no means certain that the results indi-
cated by the whole pen are on this ground unfair as regards the
effects of the total food supphed to it ; for, although one pig may
have increased much more than another upon a supposed equal
diet, the gain of each may, in fact, be only commensurate with
the food actually consumed in each case ; and thus, with great
variation in the different pigs, with diets from one cause or an-
other themselves really diflrerent, the total increase of the entire
pen may still indicate, with some truth, the effects of the total
food consumed in it — ^the smaller increase of the one pig with a
deficient share of food being compensated by the larger gain of
the other upon at the same time a larger and better share of food.

But to turn to the figures of the table. In the first 4 pens the
Bean and Lentil mixture is given ad libitum ; in Pen 1, without
any other food ; and we find that, with this very highly nitro-
genous food alone, there is nearly as high a total gain, and a
greater regularity of progress among the different pigs, and abo
throughout the several periods, and the total period of the experi-
ment, than in any other pen.

In Pen 2, besides the Bean and Lentil meal, there was an allow-
ance of 2 lbs. of Indian-corn meal pr pig per day ; which, as we
have said, contains much less of nitrogen, but more of the noD-
nitrogenous, starchy, and fatty matters, than the Beans and L^i-

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pifj Feediw/. 15

tils. Upon this mixed food the entire pen gives a greater increase
than Pen 1 with its more highljr nitrogenous diet. Pig No. 1 in
this Pen 2 gave a much higher mcrease than either of the others,
and a very r^olar one throughout the four periods ; he was a
large-framed hog, and grew very considerably as well as fattened.
The other two pigs increased less than No. I, though their increase
is also very constant during the first three periods of the experi-
ment; but, during the concluding fortnight, they seem to have
made much less progress. When they were killed, however,
both these pigs were pronounced to be well fattened ; and we shall
presently see that the cansumption of food in this pen decreased
very much during the fourth period of the experiment ; so that
the probabiUty is, that the reason of these two animals not in-
creasing at the same rate as before, was that they were already
ripe; from which cause both consumption and increase would
natorally be lessened.

In Pen 3, 2 lbs. of Bran per pig per day is the limited food,
^d the Bean and Lentil mixture the complementary or ad libitum
^ood. The Bran, which constituted the limited food of this pen,
contains, weight for weight, more nitrogen than the Indian meal
of Pen 2, but less than the Bean and Lentil mixture, wliich was
the only food in Pen 1. The Bran, however, contains rather
iQore fatty matter than the Beans and Lentils, but much less of
^r non-nitrogenous constituents than either the Beans and
lentils, or the Indian com. Excepting in the item of fatty matter,
^en«-and of this the amount is, after all, inconsiderable — the
Bran is much inferior to either the Beans and Lentils or Indian
com, but especially so in the non-nitrogenous starchy series of
compounds. The result is, that, although all the animals start
wen on this food, they all afterwards more or less rapidly decline
^ their rate of increase. The character of the deficiency of the
food in this pen is best seen by comparing the result with that
of Pen 2, in which 2 lbs. of Indian corn — so rich in the iion-
JJtrt^enoos constituents — are given, instead of the 2 lbs. of Bran.
^ comparison clearly points to the dependence of the animals
JPon a due supply of the non-nitrogenous constituents of food —
Wever liberally they may be provided with the nitrogenous

01168.

In Pen 4, with Beans and Xentiis still as the ad libitum food,
we have 2 lbs. per pig per day both of Indian meal and of Bran,
^ the limited food. This diet we should suppose to be decidedly
^Perior to that of Pen 3, but mferior to that of Pen 2. The
'^^t is a much better total increase than in Pen 3, though less
^^ in either Pens 1 or 2. There was, however, in tliis ren 4,
one pig which gained very rapidly, and indeed twice as much
^^ the whole as either of its companions. This very prosperous

10 Agricxdtural CJi^mistry, — Pig Breeding,

No. 1 pig was, compared ^vith the others, a large-framed growing
animal ; and he was, moreover, a very obstinately masterful and
selfish one, reqjuiring the whip more frequently than any other of
the entire Senes. It is probable, therefore, that in spite of the
care that was taken, he managed to secure more than his share of
the best adapted food ; and, besides this, he doubtless retarded
the progr^s of the other two pigs by disturbing their repose and
comfort.

In Pens 5, 6, 7, and 8, we have, instead of the Bean and Lentil
mixtiu'c, Indian-corn meal as the ad libitum food ; which, it will
be borne in mind, contains much less of nitrogen, but much
more of the non-nitrogenous constituents than the former.

In Pen 5 the Indian meal was given alone, ad libitum of course.
One of the pigs on this food gained more than 2 lbs. a day during
the first fortnight of the experiment ; but the other two only
about half as much. Before the end of this first period, however,
it was observed, that this fast gaining pig, and one of the others,
namely, No. 3, had large swellings on the side of their necks ;
and that at the same time their breathing had become much
laboured. It was obvious that the Indian com meal alone, was
in some way a defective diet ; and it occurred to us, that it was
comparatively poor both in nitrogen and in mineral matter, —
though we were inchned to suspect, that it was a deficiency of
the latter, rather than of the former, that was the cause of the ill
effects produced. We were at any rate unwilling so far to dis-
turb the plan of the experiments as to increase the supply of
nitrogenous constituents in the food ; and accordingly determined
to continue the food as before, but, at least, to try the effect of
putting within the reach of the pigs, a trough of some mineral
substances, of which they could take if they were disposed. The
mixture which was prepared was as follows : — 20 lbs. of finely
sifted coal ashes, 4 lbs. of common salt, and 1 lb. of superphos-
phate of lime. A trough containing this mineral mixture was
put into the pen at the commencement of the second period, and
the pigs soon began to lick it with evident relish. From this
time the swellings or tumours, as well as the difficulty in breath-
ing, which probably arose from the pressure of the former, b^an
to diminish rapidly. Indeed, at the end of this second period
the swellings were very much reduced, and at the end of the third
they had disappeared entirely. No. 1 pig, which increased the
most of the three during the first, third, and total periods of the
experiment, it is seen only gained 6 lbs. during the second
period ; he was, however, during that time the worst affected by
disease as descrilxjd above. As, however, his apparent increase
was so great during the first and third periods, it is probable,
that part at least of the deficiency in the intermediate period, was

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding. 17

due to some temporary circmnstance connected with his health,
owing to which the contents of his stomach, &c., were unusually
small at the time of his second weighing. The other two pigs
in this pen give considerably less total increase than No. 1, but
their rate of progress is comparatively very regular ; that of No. 2
is singularly so ; and No. 8, which was one of those affected by
the swellings, nevertheless gives a gradually increasing rate of
gain from the commencement up to the end of the experiment.
t^e shall find too, further on, that the animals were satisfied with
less of this food, though so poor in nitrogen, in proportion to
their weight, than, with one exception, of any of the others ; it
will also be seen, that in spite of the comjjaratively small supply
of nitrogen, and the comparatively small actual increase in weight
of the pigs, yet this increase is, in reality, somewhat high, when
calcolatei in relation to the amomit of food consumed. Nor
eoald the quality of the meat have suffered much ; for a dealer in
pork, with a practised eye, selected and purchased the carcass of
one of these pigs which had been diseased, from among the whole
36, after they had been killed and hung up. With these obser-
vations we may leave the result of this curious experiment for
the present ; but, before closing our statement of the facts of it,
it may here be remarked, that, of the mineral mixture described
above, 9 lbs. were consumed by the three pigs during the first fort-
night of its use, G lbs. during the second, and 1) lbs. during the
third.

In Pen G, with Indian corn meal as the complementary or ad
libitum food, 2 lbs. of Bean and Lentil meal constitutes the limited
food. Upon this diet, which contains a larger amount of nitrogen
t>lian that of Pen 6, but still a very liberal supply of the /ion-
nitrogenous constituents, all the pigs l)egm well, and Nos. 1 and
9 give a regular and high rate of increase up to the end of the
experiment ; averaging, indeed, very nearly 2 lbs. per head per
day. No. 2 gives, indeed, the highest increase during the first
fortnight, but a decreasing one in the succeeding periods of the
experiment. This No. 2 pig, however, was much riper at the
^®*t than either of the othere ; so that his comparatively small rate
of increase as the experiment proceeded, is in no way disparaging
^ the quality of the food, but rather otherwise. And if, as we
shall find further on, less food is consmned in proportion to
^*^e weight of the animal as he approaches maturity, we may
^^Ppose that this pig still did ample justice to all the food he
P^nstimed. Taking this explanation of the comparatively small
increase of the No. 2 pig, it may be said that the diet of this
P^*^ 6, has given, upon the whole, a good and uniform rate of
increase.

^1^ Pen 7 the limited food is 2 lbs. of Bran per head per day ;

18 Ayricultvral Gheiimtry, — Ppj Feeding,

with still Indian corn as the ad hbitum food. In this pen we
have a very good total increase ; but there is a great dirFerenoe
between the diiferent pigs in this respect. No. 8 gives not only
the highest total increase of any pig of the whole Series of 86,
amounting to rather more than 2^ lbs. per day, but his gain is
exceedingly constant throughout the whole experiment. No. 2,
on the otner hand, gives a pretty uniform rate of increase, but a
total amount considerably less than half that of No. 8, and very
much less than No. 1. The pig No. 2 was, however, from the
beginning, very much molested by the thriving No. 3, and
indeed, for a time, frequently jumped out of his pen to avoid the
ferocious attacks of his greedy neighbour. There is little doubt
that he was prevented taking as much food as he would otherwise
have done ; and his deficient increase can scarcely l)e wondered
at. No. I pig was also at first much molested ; indeed, he lost
the greater part of his tail in one engagement ; his increase, there-
fore, was comparatively small at the commencement, but after-
wards it was much better, averaging upon the whole rather more
than 1| lbs. per day. Eventually this pig was the fattest among
the whole 36 ; and this full ripeness is doubtless the reason of
the gi'adually declining rate of increase during the last three
periods of the experiment. Upon the whole, this diet of a small
allowance of Bran and a liberal supply of Indian corn, may be
pronounced a very good food, and to have yielded well. The
limited quantity of Bran served somewhat to increase the supply
of nitrogenous and mineral matters, and the large allowance of
Indian com provided a liberal amount, especially of fatty matter,
and of the other important non-nitrogenous constituents of food.

In Pen 8, two lbs. of the Bean and Lentil mixture and 2 lbs. of
Bran per pig per day was the fixed allowance ; and Indian meal the
comi)lemeutary or ad libitum food. In this diet there would be a
more liberal allowance of nitrogen than in either pens 6, 6, or 7,
whilst there would be at the same time, enough of the Indian com
meal to provide a liberal supply of the important non-nitrogenous
constituents. Every pig in this pen gave a good, and, upon the
whole, a pretty re^lar increase, though they differed somewhat
from one another m this respect ; and they all grew considerably
as well as fattened. No. 1 on this diet gives the hi^fhest increase
in the entire Series of Pigs with one exception ; and his daily gain
in weiijht seemed to be on an average more than 24 lbs., with
something like a gradually declining rate of increase from th«
commencement to the end of the experiment. No. 2 was not so
fat as either of the others ; and his increase, though still a fair
one, was only about two-thirds that of No. 1. No. 8 increased
nearly 2 lbs. per day, but less as he progressed, and, though well
fattened, was by no means so fat as many others. The average

Agricultural CJiemistry. — Piy Feeding. 19

increase of this entire pen is more than 2 lbs. per head per day.
It would appear that a small proportion of Bran, with otherwise
highly nutritive food, is by no means unfavourable in the fattening
food of the pig. The results of the next 4 pens, however, will
show, that the limit of the usefulness of Bran as a fattening food
is reiy soon reached ; and that with 2 or 3 lbs. per pig per day of
Beaus and Lentils, or of Indian corn, or even of both, an unlimited
sapplj of Bran in addition, is insufficient to enable the animals
to Qo much more than keep up a good store condition.

In Pens 9, 10, 11, and 12, Bran was given as the unlimited or
oomplementary food ; in the three former with the other foods in
limited quantity ; in Pen 12, with all the foods ad libitum.

In Pen 9 the limited food during the first fortnight was 2 lbs.

of Beans and Lentils per pig per day, with Bran ad libitum.

Upon this diet No. 1 Pig only increased 7 lbs., No. 2, 2 lbs.,

and No. 3 nothing at all, during the fourteen days. In this

food, with a limited supply of Beans and Lentils, and Bran ad

iibitmn, which has gelded such a bad result, there was a more

liberal supply of nitrogenous constituents than in many of the

previous pens ; and it will be seen further on that it was the

'W«-nitrogenous matters that were wanting in this diet. We shall

find, indeed, that beyond a somewhat narrow limit which is

a^ed with almost any of our current fattening foods, any defect is

much more Ukely to be connected with a deficiency of the important

"wi-nitrogenous constituents than of the nitrogenous ones. This

ffimark oi course refers only to the quality of food an such, that

^ as a source of the support and increase of the animal, and not

^ its value as a means of tnanure^ which, in its turn, depends

*tao8t entirely upon the amount of nitrogen which the food

*^ntain8. With such plain indications as the results of this

P^ji aflforded during the first fortnightly period, it was deter-

'^^fied to increase from that time the daily allowance of beans

*^d lentils from 2 lbs. to 3 lbs. Notwithstanding this increase

{^ the allowance of the food, which, when given alone and in

l^e quantity in Pen 1, yielded so large an increase, the gain in

^•^is pen continued to be scarcely more than one-third as much

?* the average in many of the pens. Two of the pigs indeed

**^ this pen, Nos. 1 and 3, gave a somewhat regular though but

^*^11 increase ; but No. 2 gained only 6 lbs. during the entire

V?rtod of 8 weeks. Almost from the commencement of the expe-

^^nt this No. 2 pig became unwell, being as it were paralyzed

*^ deprived of the use of its limbs ; but as he had progressed

suite as well as the average during the period preliminary to the

^^act experimient, it was supposed that this was only the natural

^^ of the defective diet, and hence it was decided not to alter

^te food, but to let him take his course, in order to obtain the

c 2

20 Agricultural Chemistry, — Pii/ Feeding.

full and marked effect of this food in comparison with that of the
other pens.

In Pen 10, Bran was still the ad libitum food ; but Indian-
corn meal, instead of Beans and Lentils, as in Pen 9, was the
limited food. The diet of Pen 10 would therefore contain leas of
the nitrogenous and more of the non-nitrogenous constituents,
than that of Pen 9. The result of this is, upon the whole, a
decidedly better rate of increase. During the first period, how-
ever, when only 2 lbs. of the limited food were given, there was, it
is true, a loss of weight of 8 lbs. in one animal ; but after the Indian
com was increased to 3 lbs. per pig per day, as the Beans and
Lentils had been in Pen 9, this pig, as well as the others, gave a
TOetty regular, though still comparatively small increase in weight.
The progress upon this diet, could however, scarcely be considered
more than that of good store food ; though nevertheless it is clear,
that the addition of the low nitrogenous and highly-starchy
Indian-corn to the unlimited Bran, gave a much better food, than
when, instead of the former, the highly nitrogenous Beans and
Lentils had been given, as in Pen 9.

In Pen 11, with Bran still as the complementary or unlimited
food, the hmited allowance is more liberal than in the two pre-
ceding pens ; namely, 2 lbs. of the Bean and Lentil mixture, and
2 lbs. of Indian-corn meal also. The result is a marked improve-
ment, as compared with Pens 9 and 10. The proportion of Bran
in the food is, however, still apparently much too high for the
purpose of rapid fattening. What really were the actual relative
proportions of the limited to the unlimited food, is a question we
need not stop to consider in this place ; but full particulars on
this point are given in Tables, pp. 83-85, in respect to the food
in all the pens. To proceed, then, with the results of the food in
this Pen 11, it may be remarked, that the pigs fed upon it grew
rather than merely fattened ; and eventually they were, compared
with those in many of the other pens, little more than half-fat.
From some unexplained caHse, one of the pigs in this pen was
less regular in his rate of progress than the rest ; but we think
that the results, as a whole, may safely be taken as giving a fair
measure of the comparative feeding value of the food employed.

In the 12th, and last pen of this Series, as before obsen'cd, each
of the three descriptions of food was allowed ad libitum ; that is
to say, one trough was kept constantly supplied with the Bean
and Lentil mixture, another with Indian-corn meal, and another
with Bran ; so that in this case the pigs were allowed to fix for
themselves entirely, the quantity and proportion of the several
foods. It might have been supposed, that by this arrangement the
animals would be placed under more favourable circumstances for
rapid progress than in any of the other pens. But, if the result

Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

were to be taken as a strict measure of the comparative productive
value of the food consumed, we must decide quite otherwise.
Thus one of the pigs, No. 2, though during the first fortnight he
gave a pretty fair increase, from t^t time became unwell and lost
the use of his limbs, as in the instance already noticed. He was
entirely unable to walk, and could scarcely support himself at the
trough, and, as seen in the Table, he only gamed 8 lbs. in the
second period, and only 1 in the third ; though during the fourth
he somewhat recovered, and then gave an increase of 17 lbs. The
other two pigs in this pen, however, gave a very fair increase, at
a gradually diminishing rate as the experiment proceeded, and
eventually they gave the highest proportions of ^/Ie«^-weight to
live, of any of the entire series of 86 pigs ; and they were, there-
fore undoubtedly well ripened. We may prhaps fairly conclude
that the bad result of the No. 2 pig seriously reduced the apparent
productive value of the food in this pen ; at any rate, it would
seem contrary to the facts to suppose, that in consulting their own
inclination, this was not calculated to guide the animals to the
selection best adapted to their progress, when we find, that under
this arrangement two of the pigs matured more completely than
any others of the entire Series. It is to be regretted, that the
«xact proportions of the several foods actually consumed by the
two pigs who gave such a good result, cannot be stated separately
irom that of the other and faulty pig. We shall find, however,
that the results of the entire pen in this respect are still of con-
fiiderable interest, as will be seen in the following table : —

Table IV.

(EXPBRIMENTS WITH PlOS. — SERIES I)

the Proportions in 100 Parts, in which the several Foods were con-
sumed in Pen 12, during the 4 snocessive Periods of the Experiment.

Ist Period of 14 Days
2nd ditto

3rd ditto

4th ditto

Mean of the 8 Weeks

Bean* and
Lentils.

asi

43i

40 9

Indian
Com.

30
45
56i
52

45A

Bran.

8|
4^

ToUl Food.

100
100

100

we suppose, as we fairly may do, that the two healthy and
flourishing pigs in this pen mainly determined these proportions,
*^ vehich the several foods were taken, it is plain, that as they
*^peiied, they naturally selected less of the nitrogenous and more
^y the starchy and fatty food. There is, indeed, a trifling excep-
tion to this rule in the last period of the experiment, during which

22 Agriculhiral CJiemistry, — Pig Feeding.

43t per cent, of the food taken was Beans and Lentils ; whilst in
the previous period there had been consumed of these only 38:^
per cent. ; and again, with 56^^ per cent, of the Indian-corn m the
third period, there is only 52 per cent, in the fourth. But, as it
was during the fourth period that the sickly pig improved and took
its food more freely, may we not conclude that the increased pro-
portion of the Bean and Lentil mixture consumed during this period
was due to his freer consumption of it ? Notwithstanding this irre-
gularity, however, the proportion of Beans and Lentils consumed in
the last period in the entire pen, is only two-thirds as great as that
in the first ; whilst, on the other hand, the Indian-corn, which
in the first period only constituted 30 per cent, of the food con-
sumed, amounted in the fourth perioa to as much as 52 per
cent.

At any rate, the general fact of a considerably decreasing de-
mand for nitrogenous constituents, and an increasing one for the
non-nitrogenous ones, as the animals mature, is sufiiciently marked.
It is, too, of considerable interest, and serves to justify the prac-
tice of diminishing the supply of the leguminous seeds (peas,
beans, &c.), and increasing that of barley-meal to the fattening pig
as he approaches maturity, as is the pretty general custom when
a liberal system of fattening is adopted.

Before leaving the last table it may be noticed, that the average
proportion of Bran taken by these pigs was less than 5 per cent,
of their total food.

We have thus far given an account of the selection and man-
agement of the pigs in this First Series of experiments — a state-
ment of the weight of the animals — a general description of the
foods allotted to the several pens — and a somewhat detailed ac-
count of the progress in each pen, and even of each pig, upon the
12 different dietaries which it comprised. We have thought it
desirable, indeed, in reference at any rate to the First Series of
experiments, somewhat minutely to call attention to any such
irregularities within the pens as might be supposed to affect the
legitimacy of comparisons founded upon the gross results of the
entire pen. These observations will nave given the reader a con-
siderable insight into the general character of the results ; and
they will enable him to form his own conclusions respecting
them. But we think it will be seen, that, notwithstanding the
irregularities that have been pointed out, there is still much of
consistency in the indications of the mere gross result of each pen,
upon which henceforth we shall found our conclusions; and we
shall therefore go into less detail on these points in the account
of the other Series of experiments.

We have yet to consider however, much more minutely, the
influence of the composition of the food upon the rate of con-

AgrkulUiral Chemistry, — Pty Feedinfj, 28

sumption, and the progress of the pigs in this First »Series of
experiments. But these and dome other points will be discussed
with more advantage in reference to the results of all the series
t(^ether. Before proceeding further, therefore, with this First
Series, we shall describe thus far, the particulars and results of
a Second and of a Third Series of experiments with Pigs.

The First Series of experiments in which Beans and licntils
were the highly nitrogenous food, Indian-corn meal the compara-
tively non-nitrogenous food, and Bmn the more bulky and less nutri-
tious one — had afforded very clear indications as to the comi)arative
feeding values of the different classes of constituents which cha-
racterise these different foods. It was decided, therefore, to con-
duct the Second Series on a somewhat similar 2)lan. In this c^e,
however, the Indian-corn of the former series was substituted by
the more usual pig-food, Barleij-meal, It was also thought de-
sirable -to alter the proiwrtions of the limited to the unlimited
food — 8 lbs. instead of 2 lbs. per pig per day of limited food being
now given when it consisted of the Bean and Lentil mixture or
of Barley-meal, and only 1 lb. when Bran. It was further deter-
mined in no case to give Bran alone, as the complementary or
ad libitum food.

Like the former one, this Series consisted of 12 pens with 3
pigs in each. Pens 1, 2, 8, and 4 had, as before, the Bean and
Lentil mixture as the ad libitum food. In Pens 5, G, 7, and 8,
Barley-meal was the ad libitum food. In Pens 9, 10, 11, and 12,
there was no allowance of limited food ; but in Pens 9 and 10
a mixture of certain proportions of the several foods was given
ad libitum ; and in Pens 11 and 12 a similar mixture, but con-
taining different proportions i-esiH^ctively of the more and the less
kighly nitrogenisea foods.

The following is a detailed description of the 12 dietaries of
^his Second Series : —

Bean and Lentil meal (equal parts), ad libitum.

3 lbs. i)er pig per day of Barley-meal ; and the Bean
and Lentil mixture, ad libitum.

1 lb. of Bran per pig per day ; and the Bean and Lentil
mixture, ad libitum.

3 l)>s. of Barley-mciil and 1 lb. of Bran per pig per
day ; and Bean and Lentil mixture, ad libitmn.

Barley-meal only, ad libitum.

3 lbs. mr pig per day of Bean and Lentil mixture ; and
Barley-meal, ad libitum.

1 lb. of Bran jier i)ig per day ; and Barley-meal, ad
libitum.

Pen 1.

Pen

I^en

Agricultural Ch^mUtry. — Pig Feeding,

Pen 8. 8 lbs. of Bean and Lentil mixture and 1 lb. of Bran
per pig per day ; and Barley-meal, ad libitum.

Pen 9. A mixture of 1 part Bran, 2 parts Barley-meal, and
3 parts Bean ana Lentil mixture, ad libitum.

Pen 10. Duplicate of Pen 9.

Pen 11. A mixture of 1 part Bran, 2 parts Bean and Lentil
mixture, and 3 parts Barley-meal, ad libitum.

Pen 12. Duplicate of Pen 11.

On April 26th, 1850, the pigs were allotted by weight to the
different pens. They were taken from a stock of 40, all of about
nine months old, which had been bought at different styes and
markets, m lots respectively of four, nine, eight, eight, and
eleven ; and, as before, they were on the following day changed
from pen to pen, so as to disturb as little as possible the weight
within each pen, and at the same time to secure greater equality
as to the character of the animals between pen and pen.

Table V., which follows, shows the weights of the pigs in each
pen as thus allotted.

Table V.
(Experiments with Pigs. — Series II)

Showing the Weights of the Pigs (in lbs.) when Allotted to the Pens,

April 26, 1850.

Pen

KoB. of the Pigs.

lbs.

IbR.

lbs.

138

137

136

134

133

129

128

127

117

125

124

120

122

123

120

126

125

124

127

115

105

106

114

111

112

113

116

Total weights)
of 8 pigs j

370

368

371

369

366

371

369

867

870

After the allotment and this first weighing, all the pens were
supplied with a mixture (given ad libitum) of one part Bran, one
part Bean and Lentil meal, and one part Barley-meal. Upon
this food they were kept for 13 days prior to commencing the
exact experiment. There was, as usual, some inconvenience
during this preliminary period until the pigs became accustomed
to their new situation and new companions ; and this of course
accounts for some of the irregularity in increase during this
period, as shown in Table YI., which follows.

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding, 25

Table YI.
(Experiments with Pios. — Series II)

Showing the weight ^in lbs.) Oained daring the 13 Days of the Preliminary Period,
andftlio the actual Weightsat the Ck>mmenoement of the exaot experiment. May 9,1 850.

1l«.Qf

Penl

Pens

Pen 4

Pen 6

•ePil^

(Wain
Uteyt.

Weight
Mftytf.

0«lnin
lSDfty«.

Wdffht

lUytf.

Oainin
U Dftyi.

Weight
M*ytf.

0«ln in
18 Dftys.

Weight
MAy9.

Oainin
ISDftys.

Weight
M*y 9.

Oainin
la iHiy*.

Weight
M*y9.

I
2
3

lb..

20
16
27

IbR.
158
133
142

lbs.
27
23
28

lbs.
165
148
133

lbs.
17

6
14

Ibfl.
155
130
120

lbs.

lbs.
153
136
142

lbs.
30

27
22

lbs.
166
149
133

lbs.
15
20
24

lb«.
149
143
136

Tbtib

433

446

405

431

448

428

Potgf

Pen 7

I
2
S

Ibe.
19
23
18

TbUla

lbs.
153
143
ISO

426

Pen 8

lbs.
18
19
16

lbs.
151
139
129

419

Pen 9

lbs.
18
17
24

lbs.
147
143
140

430

Pen 10

Pen 11

Pen 12

lbs.
7

14
21

lbs.
135
139
137

411

lbs.
23
12
23

lbs.
150
136
139

lbs.

425

lbs.
127
137
138

402

On May Oth, then, the exact experiment was commenced ; and
the pigs were now put npon the dietaries which have been already
facrifid. The management, as to the supply of food, &c., was
4e same as before. The pigs themselves were weighed every
U days ; and the experiment was continued for four such periods
"-ttat is, for a total period of 8 weeks.

The following Table (VII.) gives the increase in weight per
pig and per pen in this Second Series.

Table VII.
(Experiments with Pigs. — Series II)

®*'>'»in| the Oain in, Weight (in lbs.) upon each of the 12 different Dietaries, of
J«*^, and of the Pen of Three Pigt, daring each period of 14 Days, and during
theenfae experimental Period of 8 Weeks.

PEH 1

PEV 2

Bcuia and LentOii (eQual parts) Ad libitnm.

8 lbs. Barley Meal per Pig per Day.
Beans and Lentils (equal parts) Ad Libftom.

■»««J%1

and

•Id

4th

Tout

1st

2nd

Brd

4tta

Total

J^BflM

Period,

Period.

Period,

Period.

Period,

UDays.

14 Day*.

14 Days.

14Da>-s.

6 Weeks.

14 Days.

B Weeks.

77 '

120

-3

Died
Jane 9

' • • •

117

'pigB. .

195

284

«.««.

\ \ \ \ .

Agrindtural Chnnistnj, — Pig Feeding,

Table YII. — continued,
(Experiments avith Pias. — Series II) — continued.

PEV 8

PEH 4

Mofl.

OlPigB.

1 lb. Bnm per Pig per Day.
Beuu and Lentil* (equal parts) Ad Libitum.

8 lb. Bariey Meal and 1 lb. Bian per Plx

per Day.

BeanH and Lentils (equal parts) Ad LibJinm.

Ist
Period.
14 Days.

and
Period.
14 Dayii.

Srd

Period,

14 Days.

4tb

Period,

14 Days.

Total

Period

8 Weeks.

1st

Period,

14 Days.

ted

Period,

14 Days.

Rrd

Period.

14 Days.

4th

Period.

14 Days.

Total

Period.

»«Wecka.

Ibl.

Ib8.

lbs.

Ibi*.

Ibii.

Ibe.

IbA.

»ML

17 1

Killed
June 2tj

i59

3 pigs.

242

240

Noa.
ofPigi.

PEV 6

Barley Meal Ad Ubitnin.

PEN 6

8 lU. Bean and LantU Meal Par Pig par Daj.
Barley Meal Ad Ubiton.

2
3

Died
May 16.

37
29

35
19

28
41
21

10
29

62
142

35
39

15
23
15

11
28
20 j

Died

Jane 90

113

8 pigs.

291

102

251

Mob.
of Pig*.

PEN 7

1 lb. Bran per Pig per Day.
Barley Meal Ad Ubltmn.

PEN 8

8 lbs. Bean and Lentn Meal and 1 lb. Ban
per Pig per Day. Bailey Meal Ad LMtooL

1
2

30
85
29

20
22
21

21
17
15

24
22
21

95
96

35
87

Died
May 39

29
1

20
• ••
14

101
89

8 pigs. 94

277

187

Agricultural ChemMry, — Pig Feedifuj,

Table YII. — continmd,
(ExPEBiMENTB WITH Pifts. — SERIES IT)— continued.

■oa.

P«n9

lOztuc of 1 put Ban, 1 > ^

Pen 10

Duplicate of Pen 9.

of PifK.

Period
14 day*.

Stad

Pwtod

14 Day*.

Srd

Fariod

14Daya.

4th

Period

14 Days.

Total

Period

8 Weeks.

iHt

Period
14 Days.

2nd

Period

l4DayH.

8rd

Period

14 Days.

4th

Period

14 Dayu.

Total

Period

SWeeka.

2
3

—8

32
31

20
21

2S|

22
25

Died
June 20

21
26

96
112

29
31

14
33

18
20

18
27

79
111

3 pigs

253

283

Hoa.

of Flea.

Pen U

lOstat* of 1 part Bran ^

8 part* Bean and Lentil 1 ^^

„ 8parif&te?lleal. j "»>"°»-

Pen 13

Dnplieate of Pen 11.

2
3

32
41
27

24
27
20

22
18
24

27
24
24

105

110

43
31

22
16
17

24
25
24

21
26

110
98
99

3 pigs

100

310

104

307

An inspection of this Table (YII.) shows that five of the pigs

^ this second series died during the experiment. It would appear

^ we were very unfortunate in one of the purchases, for

^ of these five pigs belonged to one of the lots of eight, and

'Jcftce the loss was most probably due to the bad constitution of

^^ animals. The weather was, however, excessively hot during

J^ of the period of this expriment, and therefore unfavourable

^ the health of pigs fattenmg on a very liberal diet. It was

2pdent that many did suffer from this cause ; and that some of

^*^ losses were indeed in a great measure attributable to it.

These accidents, of course render it quite impossible to form
^y judgment of the value of the different foods by a comnarison
?!^ the actual gro9s results of pen with pn. But we shall find,
I *^*Mi, even with this greater irregularity in the amounts of actual
!*^<5Teft8e obtained per pen than in the previous scries, there
^ BtiU, when we come to consider this increase in relation to

28 Agriadtnral Cfiemintry, — Piy Feedhvj.

the amonnts of food consumed, mnch of consistency in the
results throughout this Series ; and also, that their indications
agree very closely with those of the previous Series. If too, in
looking at this Table of the increase of each pig, we exclude
those which died, we shall see, that upon the whole, the actual
increase per pig upon any particular food is seldom inferior in
this Series, and sometimes superior, to that upon the food most
nearly corresponding with it in the previous Series.

Having, then, thus shortly called attention to the irregularities
in the results of this Second Series, we shall not go into the same
detail on these points as we thought it well to do in reference at
least to one set of the experiments ; for, as we have already
observed, notwithstanding the numerous incidental circumstances
which were then pointed out affecting the actual increase of the
pigs, it will still be found, that there was a great consistency
throughout, in the relationship of increase to food consumed ;
and, as we have said, it will be seen too, that there was a
similar consistency in the results of this Second Series, both
when compared among themselves and with those of Series I.

But, before going further into these points, we will here briefly
notice the arrangement and actual results of the Third and last
Series of experiments.

This Third Series consists of 5 pens, with 4 pigs in each.
These five experiments were, however, not all conducted at the
same time ; those with the first three pens being simultaneous
with the First Series, and those with Pens 4 and 5 with Series II.
Indeed, the pigs of this series were those which had been thrown
out in making the selection from the whole stocks for the other
two series ; so that those in some of the pens were not, in point
of weight or similarity, well calculated for comparison with the
rest. Thus, although the pigs in Pens 1 and 2, of Series III.,
compared very well with each other in these respects, and were
all exceedingly fine pigs, and very kindly feeders, those in Pen 3
were all odd pigs, and of very different weights and quality from
the former. Pens 4 and 5, again, compared pretty well with
each other as to the pigs allotted to them, but these 8 pigs were
only about 7 months old, and they were more finely fram^ than
those in the other pens, and did not therefore assort well with
them. The five pens are, however, thus classed together on
account of the general similarity throughout in the description
of the food employed : and, notwithstanding the circumstances
which have been mentioned, we shall find further on, that —
with some peculiarity of result in this series, as compared with
the former, arising from the character of the food employed —
there is still, on comparing these five pens one with another,
more of consistency tnan we might have anticipated, when we

Agricultural Cftemistry, — Pig Feeding.

consider the increase obtained, in relation to the constituents of
food consomed.

In Tables VIII. and IX., which follow, we have the weights
of the pigs in this Series when allotted to the pens — their gain in
weight during the preliminary periods — and their weights at the
commenoement of the exact experiment.

Table VIII.

(Experiments with Pigs. — Series III)

Showing the Weights of the Pigs (in lbs.) when allotted to the Pens (Pens 1
2, and 3, Feb. 2, 1850— Pens 4 and 5, April 26, 1850.)

NoiLQftbePlga.

Penl

Pen 2

Pen 3

Pen 4

Pen 5

1
2
3
4

lbs.
119
156
140
145

lbs.
166
143
126
141

lbs.

Weights not
taken.

lb8.

104

101

lbs.

104

100

Total weights \
on pigs. . 1

560

896

390

Table IX.
(Experiments with Pigs. — Series III)

Showing theWeight (in lbs.) gained during the preliminary Period ; and also
the ictaal Weights at the commencement of the exact Experiment (Feb. 14,
1850, for Pens 1, 2, and 3 ; May 9, 1850, for Pens 4 and 5.)

Sol of

Penl

Pen 2

Pen 3

Pen 4

Pen 6

^Hpl.

Oainin
UI)»7i.

WdglU
Feb. 14

Oainin
12 Day*.

Weight
Feb. 14.

Oakiin
l2l>AyH.

Weight
Feb. 14.

Gain hi
18 Days.

Weight
MayO.

Gain in
18 DayH.

Weight
May0.

lbs.

Ibe.

lbs.

Ib8.

lbs.

139

192

—

123

120

124

171

158

—

138

19 1 120

119

158

140

— -

129

22 1 117

113

164

157

—

143

113

108

Totals

632

647

533

470

464

As seen in Table VIII., the pigs in Pen 8 were not weighed
J'^^n first allotted to the pens ; and hence their gain in weighfc
"Qring the preliminary period cannot be given, but only their
?^^ wefght ab the commencement of the experiment. The gain
^ ^eight in Pens 1, 2, 4, and 5, is seen to be singularly uniform
^^iring the preliminary periods ; and the actual weights at the
^Jmaencement of the experunent, of Pens 1 and 2 respectively,
'^d again of Pens 4 and 5, agree very well together.

80 Ayricidtural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding.

These five pens were devoted to the trial, as pig-food, of dri^d
Neivfoundlwid cod-fish — an article which could be supplied in
large quantities, and at a moderate price, were it found available
for this purpose. The experiments were so arranged as to ascer-
tain in what proportions it could be most advantageously mixed
with other foods ; the dried cod-fish containing, as will be seen
in our Table of Composition, a much higher percentage of nitro-
gen than any other current pig-food. Hence, if it were found
otherwise available, it would yield a manure of corresponding
richness.

It should be stated, that during the preUminary period, the
pigs in Pens 1, 2, and 3 of this Series were supplied with the
same food as had been given in the 12 pens of the First Series ;
namely, one part Bean and Lentil mixture, one part Indian-corn,
and two parts Bran. Pens 4 and 5, however, were provided,
during their preliminary period, \\\i\\ half a pound per pig per
day of the dried Cod-fish, and were allowed to take ad libitum of
a mixture of one i)art Bean and Lentil meal, one part Barley-meal,
and one part Bran. The Cod-fish was in all cases prepared by
boiling in water ; and a portion of the other fbod was then stirred
in with the soup thus obtained. It is scarcelv necessary to men-
tion that in all the experiments with pigs the food was mixed
with water before it was put into the trougns.

The allowance of food to the several pens of the Third Series
was as follows : —

Pen 1. 2 lbs. of dried Cod-fish per pig per day ; with a mix-
ture of e(|ual parts of Indian meal and Bran, ad
libitum.

Pen 2. 2 lbs. of dried Cod-fish per pig per day ; with Indian
meal, ad hbitum.

Pen 3. Cod-fish, and a mixture of equal parts of Indian meal
and Bran, each ad libitum.

Pen 4. 1 lb. of Cod-fish per pig per day; with a mixture of
2 parts Barley-meal and 1 part Bran, ad libitum.

Pen 5. 1 lb. of Cod-fish per pig per day ; with Barley-meal,
ad libitum.

Table X. gives the increase of each pig, and of each pen, upon
these five dietaries, during each fortnightly period, and the total
periods of eight weeks.

Agneuiturai Vhmittnj.—

PiJ «»*■»!,.

il-i

i s 3 ; s

^ „ _ . ,

i s S s s

i S K s s

1 2 = J a

•&

II !

illl

sir

1 ;? 3 2 .T

J S = 5 S

J = 5 S ?

i
r

J a = = !

J S = S 5

Mi
sill

1 S ^ 5 s;

1 S 3 5 5 S

!«

ii=|

i = t S S

iSs

i = s e a

- -f

i 3 = 2 -

■sf

1' J

"ll
Ij
1-

i S s a 3

il^i

J 2 S 11 S

J'i

i i; = a S

s^i

J S a S !:

.sl

-I=j

i s s5 a ?

n
M

III

J c s s s

S|=|

3 2 3 = =

ll=l

3 = 5 s s

3 Z g S! S

«}=!

i s c e i

-1

---A\

32 Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding.

As the experiment proceeded with Pens 1, 2, and 8, it was
obvious that the fixed allowance of 2 lbs. of Cod-fish per pig per
day, in the two former, was more than they would have taken liad
it not been so mixed with their other food as to oblige them to do
so. It was evident, too, that the proportion of one part Bran to
one part only of the Indian meal, in the ad libitum food of Pens
1 and 3, was also too great. In Pens 4 and 5, therefore, as the
Table shows, only 1 lb. of Cod-fish per pig per day was given as
the limited food ; and in Pen 4, where Bran was given in the
ad libitum food, the mixture was composed of only one part Bran
to two parts of the Barley-meal.

The Table shows at a glance that there was throughout this
Series, with Cod-fish, a very fair rate of increase per head ; and we
sliall see further on, that the increase was also comparatively high
in relation to the amount of food consumed. We observe, too, a
marked superiority in Pen 2, where the Indian meal was given
alone as aa libitum food, over Pen 1, where it was mixed with
Bran ; and the same in Pen 5 over Pen 4 ; the Barley-meal being
mixed with Bran in the latter, and given alone in the former.
This is only what we might expect, and the result is very con-
sistent in the two cases.

The Pigs in Pens 1 and 2 of tills Cod-fish Series were ex-
ceedingly fat ; they indeed looked better than any, either in this
or in either of the other Series. We shall have occasion to remark
again on this experiment further on.

Before leaving the actual experimental results of these three
Series of Pig experiments, ana considering them more closely
when brought by calculation to one luiiform standard of compari-
son, or more minutely in reference to the chemical composition
of the foods, it may be convenient to show the average weekly
consumption per head of the unlimited, as well as of the limited,
food ; and also the average weekly increase obtained per head
during each period, and the total period, in each of the 29 pens
which the three Series of experiments comprise. These particu-
lars are given for the several Series respectively in Tables XI.,
XII., and XIII., which follow.

Affrievltitrtil Chrmistry. — Fu} Ff^di/ii/.

Table XI.
(Experiments with Pins. — Series 1.)

p.-^.u™, ^ j..™,^ ,^^,^^^.^, ......J

""^"SSfvi^s^^

u«a.,^.

.„,„,.^.

s^h

II un'ji:

■?52?i

n Dm.',

17.

Ml
s

None

14 llw. Indian meal .

141b8.bnu] ....
1 14 lbs. Indian meal 1
1 UtbiLbnin I

|6;nbs. hcBQileutili
1 meal (.equal parte) 1

S2 lbs. ilitto

JOillis, ditb)

Sli lbs. ditto

12-S3

itiixi

13-HS
11-50

13'W3
l5-(i6
lO'OO

1 2-00

i)-6e

11-83
10-33
6-83
12-00

12-M

H'3
Il)-K

•

3
3
3
3

None

|14 1b«. bwuiAlentill

1 me«l (equal porta) 1
l*lbB.b™n . . .
i U Ibe. bean & lentil,
I meal (eqnal parts),
I HlbB. bran .)

15tlba. Indian meal
44 i lbs. ditto
Hi lbs. ditto
.%} Iba ditto

is-ia

11-00

i7-.yi

H-00
12-66
14-67
14-50

9-SS
13-83

u-ie

H-18
12-00
12-00
14-68

124

la-i!

I4-J

*
U

( Ulbs. bean&leDtill

1 ineft!C«inal parts) t

14 Iba. Indian meU -

i 14 lbs. hcaD& lentil

/ m»l

IN Iba. bian . . .
ilj lbs. ditto . . ,

IB IbB. ditto . . .

luO

vas

5-00
6-83

r.-M;i

5-33
5-50

7-33

4 I

4-5

7--I

None

2fH lbs. bean and)
lentil meal (equal
porta) ..,.'.

2ol lbs. Indian meal I
3 ib«. bran. . . . )

15 P3

■ O.S.

7-(X)

e-66

10-£

Ayrktiltural Cfumistry, — Pig FeeiUng.

Table XII.
(Experiments with Pigs. — Series II.)

Showing the Average weekly Consoniption of Food and Increase in Weight per Head
during each Period, and the Total Period of the Experiment.

Pen,
Mott.. &e.

2
8

6
6
7

3
8

DMcription and avenge qoantiticB of Food eoniramed, per
PiR. per Week (lbs.).

Limited Foods.

Ad Libitnm Foods.

None

21 Ihs. barley meal .

7 lbs. bran ....

j 21 lbs. barley meal |
( and 7 lbs. bran j

None

3
3

( 21 lbs. bean & lentil )
'j meal (equal parts) j

{

7 lbs. bran ....

21 lbs. bean k lentil )
meal (equal parts) >
and 7 lbs. bran )

None

( 44 lbs. bean & lentil )
\ meal (equal parts) )

51 4 lbs. ditto

52} lbs. ditto

33 lbs. ditto

68^ lbs. barlej meal
37} lbs. ditto

57* lbs. ditto

25 lbs, ditto

61i lbs. of mixture
of 1 part bran, 2
parts barley meal,
and 3 parts bean
and lentil meal

i 641 lbs., duplicate of )
I Pen 9 j

[ 65 lbs. of mixture \
of 1 part bran, 2 I
parts bean and >
lentil meal, and 3 (
parts barley meal ]

\ 64 lbs., duplicate of )
\ Pen 11 )

ATeimse Weekly increMe In Live Weiiitt db
Mr PIr dnrins each Period, and tEe TM
Period of the Experiment.

1st

Period.

14 Days.

8-83

12-67
11-50

12-17

11-00

17-00

15-67

11-50

10-00

14-67

16-67

1733

Period.
14 Days.

7'50

9-33
7-33

9-67

13-00

8-83

10-60

8-26

11-88

ll-SS

11-83

917

8rd

Period.

14 Days.

9«0

13-83

10-83

12-00

15-00

9-88

8*88

12-76

4th

Period.

14 Days.

14-75

Avex

d
8 We

10-

1200 II-
10 67 llCk

9-25 llf^

9*50 I ^2*
9-26 1 11-

IMT In-

12-60

9-60

10-67

12-17

8-50

10-

TSS llOi

1117 111-71

12-60

\tn

12-60

lltf

Affrirulhiral Cliemisiry, — Pig Feeding, 85

Table XIII.
(Experiments with Pigs. — Series III.)

iverage ireeJtly Can*umption of Food and Increase in Weight per Head,

lod,

ig each Period, and during the total Period of the Experiment.

Iptloii and avenge quantitiea of Food eonaumed.
per Pig. per Week (Ibe.)

IPoode.

ood-fish .
cod-fish .

od-fish
Dd-fish .

Ad Libltom Foods.

]

j 4 7 lbs. of mixture of bran ]
and Indian meal (equal >
parts) )

45;^ lbs. Indian meal . .

47 lbs. of mixture of bran j
and Indian meal (equal (
parts), and 7| lbs. cod- (
fish.

49 lbs. of mixture of 2
parts barley meal and
1 part bran.

i)7\ lbs. barley meal .

Average Weekly Inorease in Live liVtolght (Iba.)
er Pig duxmff each Period, and the total
sriod of the experiment.

iBt

Period.
14 Days.

7-87

9-50

10-25

11-26

17-25

ftid

Period.

14 Days.

1200

1300

9*75

9-62

12-25

8cd

Period.

14 Days.

10-62

13-25

7-60

5-62

11-25

4th

Period.

14 Days.

9-87

12-87

8-25

11-12

6-25

Aretmgt

of
eWeeki.

10-09

1215

8-94

9-40

11-75

these Tables we leam the fact that the pigs consumed,
^erage, about 60 lbs. of corn per head per week — or nearly
T head per day ; and that where the quality of the food
1, they yielded from 10 lbs. to 12 lbs. of increase in live
er head per week — or about 1^ lb. per head per day.
jnounts of food consumed per week, as given in these
(XL, XXL, XIII.) are, it will be i-emembered, the
of the whole period calculated per head; and those of
rage weekly increase produced are also calculated per
it the latter is given for each separate period, as well as
total period. In the Tables which next follow, however
XV., XVI.), we have the weekly consumption of food
lbs, live weight of animal, instead of per head ; and calcu-
• each period of the experiment separately, instead of only
total period. We have now, too, instead of the rate of

£• hmd during each separate period, the amount of in-
ined for each 100 lbs, of food consumed. In these
therefore, we have the rate of consumption and of /»-
luring the successive periods of the experiment— each
i to a uniform standard. And, it will be seen, that the
9 thus arranged, clearly bring to view the influence of the
of the animal, both upon the rate of consumption of food,
n its productiveness — aa already briefly alluaed to, when
iing upon the results of Pen 12 of the First Series of ex-
8. "We shall call attention to these Tables somewhat in

Ai/rkullurni CkemUiry. — Pvi Ffediitg.

■o'C

11^ H

ssss

551

i :

^^i

Hit

5=6 =

= = i

.ii

i"^

Sv:

-■1.1 rtJ

l%t t

ztt z

--" ■"

■>

™

-i;

?ll

U'^^

Vil

^■5

til

^«

mj.

t?.s s

1.^ T,

m'h

li I

^«

Ulk

iiUU s

III

S'S

€

«_= n

h--T I

K-S

It
11

i 1

s i

1 Q

%■■■
fit

!s s

r
11

T-

■vT

l-ill

; i i

i3 5

i
1
■s

111
1

1 S

.= _ 1

„

«•"

Agrirultural Ohemtstry. — Pig Feedituf.

ifilM

"sn %

^■^

■'?'

i««,-

:,<. =.

- o

-°l

T ,

" -

,:c-„

-r,

„

, -

, ,

-ii

„.-,-

- «

a n

'i^

'-2i;s

22S 3

s s

S S

„ss

™

»-,- 7

» .,

„

•^

'li

■a

?JI

ur^

;-S

^ ^

it,

■s'S

.«

■rfr'r

"-i f

s i

S i

""""

•'

■'

=>» = =

¥',

^1^

s s

a-3

.■si;,

av"-

-«» •>

„

■r n

^ „

„

'^4

SI
IS

-■3J f??.-

.. »

'II

K5ft5

■f-1

rr ■

i 1

s ■ ■

lit

'=i^'-

1 !

i;:

Lr.'::

5I|I

fil

1 *'

tass

° _

ift

.§

S-

III

■ri

■1

f *

-ni-

S'S

= B.i

M-is

1 §1

s s

ss-

«J

'""^

- -

Affrirvlhiral Chttmistry. — Pig Fefdiiuj.

II
'fl

Is
3|

I II

a I ^
I 1i

iltji

I i I

i i

I I 1

'i %

1 s s

r- t;

u s S

S t

j|=i

^ 3 ^

l 1

1 i s

1 g

1 i s

S 1!

4ri

i i s

i s

1 I i

r- 9

ll=l

I I s

I 1

■ n-i

1 I I

i s

1 1

iiPiil

1 1 ■

1 1 :
III

1 1
1 1

- ~ "

» .

Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding. 89

Looking first to Table XIV. (which refers to Series I.), it is
seen, by the heading, that Division I. gives the quantity, in lbs.
and tenths, of the gross or fresh food consumed u^eekhj by every
100 Ih, Uve-tveight of animal in each pen, during each of the
^oor successive periods, and the total period of the experiment.
A glance at the figures in this division from left to right will
show, that, with scarcely an exception, there is a very consider-
ate decrease of consumption to 100 lbs. live weight, as the ex-
periment progresses. In several cases there is scarcely half as
oioch fooa consumed to a given weight of animal in the fourth

£riod as in the first ; and, indeed, in all where the progress is
own to have been good, this decrease in consumption, from
^e first period to the fourth, amounts to about one-third or more.
^ the other hand, it is as clearly seen, that in those cases in
^hich the pigs fattened but very slowly, the decrease in the con-
^^Jmption of food to a given weight of animal, as the experiment
P'^oceeded, is very inconsiderable.

liooking at the figures a little more in detail, we observe too,
^9^ there is a perceptibly greater decrease in consumption to a
S^Ven weight of animal, where the comparatively w<;// -nitrogenous
"'^'idian com predominated, than where the more highly nitro-
genous foods were more freely given.

If we now tuni to Division II. of the Table — which shows the
?^>Hiparative productiveness of a given weight of food in gross
^^^creaae, as the experiment progressed — we see no such obvious
^^Oeral gradation in this, as the animal matured, iis has been
rved in the rate of the con^nimption of food ; though there
^rhaps, upon the whole, more of a tendency to deci'ease than
increase in this rate of productiveness in gross increase, as the
"^l^eriinent proceeded. Comparing, however, the results of
"^^^B 1 to 4 inclusive, where the nitrogenous food more predomi-
, with those of pens 6 to 8, where the Indian meal was
in larger quantity, there is certainly, with the more highly
^t>»x)genous diets, more of the tendency to decrease, in the pro-
ion of gain in live weight to food consumed, than with the
i:e n(?n-nitrogenous ones.

*Xuming to Table XV., which gives the same particulars for

^ Second Series, we see, that, notwithstanding during the course

the experiment several of the pigs in this Series were un-

Ithy, and some died, yet the same general facts are here

ught out as in Series I. Thus, taking first Division I.

^Ue XV.), which shows the rate of consumption as the animals

ined, we find (owing, doubtless, to the generally better and

uniform balance of the constituents of the food throughout

3 Series than in Series I.), that the decrease in the consumption

iood to 100 lbs. live weight of animal, is even more general in

40 Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding.

this series than in the former one. And, the greater tendency to
decrease in consumption of food to a given weight of animal, the
more within certain Hmits the comparatively non-nitrogenous
food predominates, is here again seen.

In Division II. (Table XV.) we observe, that the rate of pro-
duct ivericiis in gross increase in weight to 100 lbs. of food con-
sumed, fluctuates so considerably from the commencement to the
conclusion of the experiment, but so irregularly, that it is im-

Sossible to decide that there is any regular gradation in either
irection. There is, indeed, in this case, perhaps more of the
tendency to decrease in the mte of productiveness of the food in
gross increase as the experiment proceeded. It is not improbable,
however, that the great heat of the weather, and the unhealthi-
ness of some of the pigs, may have had something to do with
this result. Though, as we shall have further occasion to ob-
serve, a slightly lessened proportion of gross increase, to food con-
sumed, does not necessarily show that the food was really less
produc'tive in real dry increase.

In Division I. of Table XVI., which shows the rate of con-
sumption, as the experiment proceeded, with the Third or Cod Fish
Series, the influence of the composition of the food on this rate of
consumption by the fattening animal, is strikingly shown. Thus,
in pens 1 and 2, considerably more of the highly nitrogenous
cod-flsh was allotted to the pigs than they would have taken,
could they have obtained other food in its stead ; but, in pens 4
and 5, only half as much of the cod-fish was given, so that the
pigs were enabled to take a much larger proportion of the com-
paratively non-nitrogenous complemeniaiy foods. The result is,
that mth this very much larger proportion of the more /w/i-nitro-
genous foods in pens 4 and 5, we have in these, a very much greater
decrease in the rate of consumption to a given weight of animal
than in the pens 1 and 2. There was, indeed, as we shall have
occasion to notice again further on, a much less proportion of
f(X)d consumed to a given weight of animal, when the large
amoiuit of the highly nitrogenous cod-fish was given, than m
most other cases in our experiments — and, at the same time, a full
average productiveness in gi'oss increase of that food. But, con-
fining ourselves just now to the question of the proportion of the
-iood consumed to the weight of the animal as it fattens, we find,
looking a little more in detail to the figures in Table XVI., that
small as was the decrease in consumption in either pens 1 or 2,
yet it was greater in pen 2, where the non-nitrogenous Indian
meal alone constituted the complementair food, than where, as in
pen 1, it was mixed with a quantity of Bran. We have a similar
result, more clearly brought out, in comparing pens 4 and 5 ; the
decrease in the rate of consumption to a given weight of animal

AffrkuUural (liemistry, — Pig Feeding. 4 1

as the experiment proceeded, being much greater in pen 5, where
Barley-meal was given alone as the ad libitum food, than in
pen 4, where it was mixed with Bran.

The progressive rate of jnodufiivmess of a given weight of
food in this Third Series (see Table XVI., Division 2) is very
variable, and does not show anything like regularity of gradation.
The increase obtained for a given weight of food during the
whole period was, however, generally good in this Series. In
pen 2 it was about as high as in any case in the three Series ;
and we may readily supjpose, that the mixture of Cod-fish and
Indian -meal given m this pen 2, would supply more digestible
assimilable matter in a given weight of the food, than that in any
other pen in the three Series of experiments.

Upon the whole then, the experiments show very strikingly,
the rapid decrease in the rate of consumption of food to a given
weight of animal as it fattens. The fact of sucli a decrease is,
we beUeve, pretty currently admitted, though we presume that
the extent of it vdW appear from these Tables to be much
greater than is generally supposed. At the same time it is seen,
that although there is this great decrease in the amount of food
consumed to a given weight of animal as it matures, yet that the
productiveness — at least in gross increase iu live weight — of a
given amount of food, is much more nearly constant throughout
the fattening process. It has, however, been oliserved, that there
is perhaps a greater tendency to an increased rate of productive-
ness of the food in gross increase as the animal matures, the
^eater, within certain limits, the proiX)rtion of the more nan-
nitiogenous constituents of the food. At any rate it is undoubted,
that it was under these circumstances of a larger proportion of
tKe non-nitrogenous constituents, that the decrease in the rate of
consumption — indicating matnritg — was by far the most rapid.
A.ii.d, in reference to this point it may Ixj interesting here to observe,
th^Lt it appears from an extensive series of experiments which we
h^^'e made with a view of determining the probable composition
of the gross increase in weight of the fattening animal, that the
neiiTer it approaches to maturity the greater will be the proix)rtion
of Jat in the gross increase obtained — and also, that the greater
tk^ proportion of fat, the greater is the proportion in the gross
incsrease of real dry substance. It appears, therefore, from the
ifcsxilts, that not only is the amomit of food rec^uired to a given
weight of animal, the more diminished as it fattens — ^the more
within certain limits the food contains of the /«(?//-nitrogenou8
constituents — but likewise, that it is these more /?o;/-nitrogenoufl
AO^^da that seem to give any indication of an increased rate of pro-
ductiveness in real dry increase as the fattening process proceeds.

It will be observed, that in our remarks upon Tables XIV.,
^ V ., and XVI., we have almost confined our attention to the

Agi-iadtural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

question of the progressive rate of the consumption, and of the
productiveness, of food during the fattening process — and to the
influence which the character of the foodS — as generally known
apart from the evidence of direct chemical analysis — ^may be sup-
posed to have had, on this progression. The actual relationship
of consumption, and of increase, to the various constituents of the
food, will be more clearly brought out in Tables which will shortly
follow. But, before introducing this part of the subject, it wiU
be well to subjoin statements, both of the per centage composition
of the foods employed, and of the actual quantities of the various
constituents consumed, with the amounts of increase which they
have yielded.

In Tables XVII. and XVIII., which now follow, we have a
summary statement of the per centage composition of the foods
employed in the three Series of experiments.

Table XVII.
(Experiments with Pigs. — Series I.-III.)

Summary of the Percentagfes of Dry Matter, Ash, Nitrogen^ and F'atty Matter ,
in the Foods employed in the 1st Series of Experiments with Pigs.

PxmCKVTAOK RSSVLTg.

Deflcription.

Dry Matter.

Ash.

Kitrogen.

Fktty Matter.

Inclusive
of Ash.

Organic
Only.

InPrMh
SulMtance.

In Dry
Matter.

InFreah

In Dry
Matter.

InFi«ah

InDiy
Matter.

Egyptian beans .
Lentils, Lot 1 . .
Lentils, Lot 2 . .
Indian com meal, )

Lotl . . . j
Indian oorn meal, /

Lot 2 . . . (
Bran ....

88«30

87-30
86-62

89-70

89-89
84-79

83-57
82 43
81 -()4

88-33

88-62
78-77

4-73
4-87
4-98

1-37

1-28
6-02

5-35
5-58
5-75

1'53

1-42
7-10

4*24
4-52
4-66

1-72

1*95
2-61

4-80
518
5-26

1-92

217
308

2-29
2-23
2-21

510

5-59
4*92

2-60
2'55
2*55

6-68

622
680

Table XVIII.

(EXPERI3IENTS WITH PiGS. — SERIES II.-III.)
Summary of the Percentage Composition of the Foods.

Egyptian beans

88-17

84-45

3-72

4-22

4-21

4-78

2-20

2-50

L^tils, Lot 1 . .

89-42

86-44

2-98

3-33

4-54

5-08

2-25

2-52

Do. 2 . .

89-97

85-10

4-87

5-41

4-18

4-65

1-35

1-50

Barley, Lot 1 . .

82-38

80-19

2-19

2 66

1-82

2-21

234

2-84

Do. 2 . .

80-9.5

78-77

2-18

269

1-88

2-26

2-33

2-88

Da 3 . .

82-53

80-48

205

2-48

1*55

1-88

1-41

1-71

Bran

85-08

78-67

6-41

7-53

2-62

3-08

4-98

5*85

Dried Newfound- (
land cod-fish j

59-26

40-60

18-66

31-49

6-60

11-18

0-90

1-52

Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding. 48

The figures in these Tables (XVII. and XVIIL), are in all
cases the means of two or more determinations agreeing well with
each other. The dry matter is determined by drying in a water-
hath at 212®. The ash, by burning on platinum trays, in cast-iron
moffleB arranged specially for that process. The per-centages of
ash, as given in the Table, are, however, generally too high, as,
to secnre a fair sample, the whole bulk of the food was well
mixed together ; and, from this, somewliat large samples were
taken in the first instance, from which it was impossible to
ranove all adventitious matters, and especially so when the
samples were taken from the bulk in the state of meal. The
nitrogen determinations were made by combustion with soda
lime, and estimated as the double platinum salt. The fatty
nrntter is that yielded by extraction with ether.

It is seen, that the Indian-corn and Barley-meal contained less
than 2 per cent, of nitrogen ; the Bran about 2| per cent. ; the
Beans and Lentils about 4^ per cent. ; and the dried Cod-fish
about 6i per cent.

Of fatty matter, on the other hand, the dried Cod-fish contains
less than 1 per cent ; the Beans and Lentils only about 2\ per
cent. ; the Barley-meal about the same quantity ; and the Indian-
corn and Bran, each about 5 per cent.

These Tables of the per-centage composition of the foods, are
employed in the construction of all the Tables which will now
follow.

h Tables XIX., XX., and XXI. there are given, for the three
Series respectively — ^the total amount of increase in live weight
obtained in emh pen; also the total amounts consumed— of each
of the different foods in the fresh state as weighed out to the pigs
"Tand of the dry organic matter— of the mineral matter— of the
nitTogen — and of the fatty matter, which those amounts of fresh
food contained ; also a summary of the same particulars for
several of the pens classed together, as well as for all the pens of
each Series, respectively.

44 Agrifultural Chemiitry. — Pig Fetding.

Table XIX.

(EXI'EHIMEKTS WITH P1G8.— SbRIBS I.)
Showing the Total QmouutsoE Gro

o.'-tS,

803

ofyi^'tX

rx-S<v<^

620

"■=S-,

( Bean meal
(Lentil meal .

Total .

7S6
75(i

S5*74
37-34

ll».

32 oa

31 -3*

l.-|12

IS52

73-08 ' HO-40

1 Indian meal .

1 LentU mesl '.

Total .

(i24

297
621
.'>ll

4-41 i!-3fl
2il-4)S 2fi'44
30-80 aS34

i.-»n

1:12a

«4-li9 1 fll-04

1 Itron . . .
^[tenninea). .
( Lentil meal .

Total .

1K4
4M

26r.
4(H
M97

20-23 , H-7T
22 -«9 1 20-flO
2.^12 2I'8S

1.1(W

KWU

116-114

r.i-23

1 liidian meal .
1 Bran

1 Bean meal ,
\ I, en til meal .

Total .

33ti

:i7H

2«7
26r.

4 40

20-23
17-HH

urn

6-25
H-77
IG-04
17-17

14^8

til'U

48-23

231

Indian meal .

lOBS

I4-S3

2009

20M

f Bean meal .

\ J-entil meal .
( Indian meal .

Total .

I6H
Ulii5

140

7-93

W27

:-iO 26

712
761
l!t-6a

urn

1230

31-S8

son

S Ilran . . .
1 Indian meal .

Total .

HB6
1IH>3

266
941

20-23
1.1-94

S-77
19-81

l^iltP

1206

3417

20-23
71t3
8'27

11-^6

2S-M

347

1 Bran ...

1 Bean meal
(Lentil meal .

( ndittn meal .

ToUl .

11M

3li^
140

138

rs3

H-77
7-ia
7-61

16-55

1.^6fi

132.-.

47-99

4<H)6

Agrintltui-al Ghtmiairif. — Piij Feeding. 45

Tablk XIS,— Bxpebiments with Pir.s. — Seuies I. — rontinved.

fti

.■^"^

n^^

Ull^

«S^

100

1 Bean meal . .
^Lentil meal .

Total .

231
4.<<l

193
189

33W

11..

11-39
2.V95

o"7H
10-48
11-2.-.

0-30

r.-io

2M9

89:i

721

4f a.-.

31-.-.1

31-B9

( Indian meal .
) Bran ...

Total .

5(JH

409

6113
34 ■117

8 6i;

14 77

aS'lO
27-M.1

[02M

»,-,.-,

4I)'IU

23 43

B2-93

fBaanmeal
J Lentil meal .
\ Indian meal .

Total .

Hi8
IBM
3311
431

110

133
2117

f2r
4-41

a.viio

7-12

7lil
6'26

ll:'-.

• 3-8.-,
3-71
18-lfi
2119

una 1 HU

iii-,-.i

3333

46'91

f BeaD meal . .
J Lentil meal .
{ Indian meal .
LBran . . .

ToUI .

H4J

38<i
2S2
54,-1
r,fi

IB-IH

ni'7(i

8-07
4-27

u-.-.i

11 -."lO

7'85
7'tiO
93-30
3-49

1371 1 iieit

4.--30

4S-33

62-24

Suimmri/ of CUimpx «f Fz-nn

ir.v.

1 1091

i Bran . . .

' InHian meal
■l Bean meal .
(LeDtUraeal ,

Tot-I .

H72
1172
2-J42
3^42.

1S73
1839

4i»-4«

i(j.-,-9y

1 10- .-19

9.-.-04

101-81

33-Ot!
30-32
51-40
49-8S

fi828

483fl

2H,-.-8,-,

aaii-aii

170- .10

■Mil

0*5-8

[ 117il

(Bran . . ,
1 Bean meal. .
''j Lentil meal .
I Indian meal ,

Total .

(172
Slit!
9.10
4098

,-.3a

280
27 «

40-4'!

ir,-Bti

1U-.-1+
53-89

14-24
I.V22

78-ni

33-OfS

7-70

7-42

g2U-|i5

5442

4713

l-U-7.-.

ia3-ui

2Ba-PS

■am

•np9t(

II.

,' Bean meal
) LeotU meal -
', Indian meal .
(Bran ...

Total .

798
1428

333
327

1124

18-84
19-6H
10-44
H.-.-92

lH-90
18-Ofl
14-91

37-27

9-15
8-81
43-26
70-21

8024

3490

134-86

87-17

131-43

up™

2914

( Bean me>l .
1 Lentil meal .
■^Indian meal ,
[Bran . , ,

Total .

.H319
3319
0184

2843

2772
2724
M71

l.'ifi-a?
lH3-r.7
81-21
17111

140-B9
150-04
I14-9.S

74-20

79-16

73-49
SS3-53

139-82

ir>.60,^.

13,207

572-; 6

*Wl-\6

^6^»QM

listi!/'

_p„j F*"''"-'-

ajido^

'•2:l.'sJ?£ii^

Agrievltural Chemistry. — PUi Feeding.
TabLB XX. — (ExpRRiMEKTB WITH PiDs.— SgRiEri U.)—e0ntinugd.

s^.

.-^

5srKS;.

sSff

"£■?

■s

.ss.,

277

I Bartev meal -
1 Bran , . .

Totol .

1383

1100
132

29'k

10-76

24-77
4-40

30-60

8-36

l.-.lil

1232

40-72

29-17

38-96

ia7

1 B«an meal
1 LenUl meal .

IK'™':

Total .

189
189
<i(KI
12ti

160
ifi2

7-04
7-61
1303

8-07

7-96

9.-20
10'82
3-W

416
3-SI

13-53
6-27

IIU4

«»

:l5-75

30-28

27-29

263

1 Bean meai
1 Lentil meal .
^ Barley meal .
(Bran . . .

Total .

S69

:(B9

346

311

317
391

19a

18-73
13-66
10-70
15-76

lB-54
1606

8-92
6-44

813
6'6B
11-28
12-24

147(i

1212

53-8r.

46-96

38-20

283

Bean meal .
Lentil meal .
6>rle;meal .
Bran . . .

Total .

S89
389
.il9

329
333
4IS

H-uO
16IS
Il-2.-i
16C4

16-41

16-83
9-30
6-80

8-58
6-61
11-49
12 92

1557

1279

38-62

49-34

39-60

310

Bean meal .
1 Lentil meal .
\ Batloy meal .

Bran . . .

Total .

260
260
779

a«o

219
223
KIO

204

9-68
10-76
16-98
16-60

10-95
11-23

uin

H-81

5-78

i-41

17-BS
12-93

1559

1264

54-07

43-15

41-00

307

(Bean meal. .
1 Lentil meal .
1 Barley meal .
(Bran . . .

ToUl .

257
21)7
770
.257

217
220
til3
202

9-56
10-63
16-70
16-46

1082
1110
13-81
6-73

5-66
4-36
IT'lI
13-78

1541

12S2

M-S*

42-46

3941

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding.

Table XX. — (Exferlmexts with PiPfS. — Series If.) — rontinued.

Sttmmary of Classes of Pens.

No«.
ofP«n.

Total

Increase of

8 Pin daring

HWeeks.

Dfucrlptlon
of the Food*.

ToUl
FreHhFood
eoMtuned.

Total Dry
Orfranio
Matter

conmuned.

Total

Mineral

Matter

eonsnined.

Total
Nitrogen

Total
Fatty

Matter
eoosnmed.

Class I.
Pens 1-4

Itw.
[ 961

1 Bean meal
i Lentil meal

Barley meal .

Bran . . .

Total .

lbs.
2177
2177
1008

.S86

lb*.

1839

1865

800

264

lb«.

81 10
90-70
22-00
21-52

Iba.

91-79

93-79

18-42

8-80

Iba.

4800
3617
23*52
1672

5698*

4768

215-32

212-80

124-41

Class 11.
Pens 5-8

1 10()«
i 53(>

•

1 Bean meal
j Lentil meal .
j Barley meal .
( Bran ...

Total .

420

4533

294

355

360

3604

231

15-64
17-08
98-43
18-83

17-69

18-20

81-64

7-70

9-25

7-28

101-23

14 63

5667

45.50

149-98

125-23

132-39

Glass III
Pens 9

& 10

1 Bean meal
J Lentil meal .
'j Barley meal .
[ Bran

Total .

758

1011

506

640
650
804
397

28-23
29-79
21-95
32-40

31-95
32-89
18-22
13-24

16-71
13-16
22-77
2516

3033

2491

112-37

96-30

77'8<»

Glass IV.
Pens 11
U 12

I 617

1 Bean meal
1 lentil meal
j Barley meal .
( Bran . . .

Total .

517

1549

517

436

442

1232

406

19-24
21-38
33-68
83'11

21-77
2233
27-97
13-54

11-89

8-77

' 86-04

26-71

3100

2516

107-41

85-61

80-91

All Pens

8120

[ Bean meal
1 Lentil meal .
) Barley meal .
(Braa . . .

Total .

3872
3872
8101
1653

3270
3317
6440
1298

144-21
168-9.>
17606
105-86

16S-20

167-21

14625

48-28

S6-S5

66-88

182-56

82-22

17,498

14,325

585*08

519-94

416-51

Affricultural Chemistry.-— Pig Feeding.

Table XXI.

<ExpKRis[E.vTs WITH Prrjs.— Sehies III.)
Showing tlu Total amountB of Gross Food ot Conetitue!it8coasiimed,aiido(
produced, during the Total Period of the Eiperiment.

."A.

!^^

^T^.

Ti^Ul

TxM Dry

ri.ui

u""

Itu.
323

( Bran

■ Indiwi meal .

1 Cod-fioh .

Total . .

755
755
SOB

695
6B9

la.-.

Iba.
4.V48

9-84
57-50

Itw.
19-73
U-2B
20'3I

37-15

41-35
2-77

1818

1389

112-83

54-32

81-17

389

1 Indian tueal .

Total .

11^0
308

12S

18'il9
i>7T.(i

27- H
20-31

78-5S
277

1758

1408

78-49

4r-4C

81-35

28(i

i Brmn

{ IndiSD meal .

1 Ood-fiah

Total . .

766
7r.H
SS8

fiflo
669
M7

4 »■,->]
U79
14-41

19-74
14-29
15-70

37-18
41-28
2-14

17o0

1S61

B'J-71

49-73

80-60

301

( Barle? meal .
{ Cod.fiBh .
Total .

524
224

413
91

22-82
33-58
41-79

19-03
13-73
U-77

24-03
26-OH
2-02

17116

1^3.^

98-1 U

47-53

53-13

S76

1 Barley meal .
( Cod-flah .

Total .

I8J1
224

40- It!
4l'7a

33-54
14-77

42-60
2-02

■2065

1643

81-^.5

4S-31

44-62

Smtttnan/ nf VlnnMx i<f Pn

Ota I.
Peui

1 Bran . .
\ Indian meal .
I Cod-fiali .

Total . .

1511
2961

1190
3621
347

38-62
I.J9-41

39-47
6.-.-71
56-33

74-33
161-11

7-68

5326

4158

289-02

151-50

24312

ft««4

( Barle; meal .

\ BraD . .
( Cod-fish .

Total . .

2689
524
448

2383
412
182

62-98
33-58

83-58

52-.-,6
13-73

29-a*

66-83

26-08
4-04

3861

3977

180-14

95-83

96-75

1pm.

1675

1 Bran

1 Indian meal .
^Barlaymeal .
(Cod-fish .

Totai .

2035
2961

1302

1602
2621
23SS
529

I-24S7

38-62
62-9S

242-99

63-20
55-71
62 56
85-86

1 00-41
16111
86-63
11-72

9la7

7135

i6'J-\6

\ lW-^\w.'i'Kl

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding.

These Tables of the actual amounts of the increase in live
weight produced, and of the fresh food or its constituents con-
sumed, furnish a complete account of the chemical statistics of
the experiments, and provide a basis for any further calculations ;
and it is only as serving these purposes, that we have given them
in detail in these Tabl^. We shall find, indeed, that the influence
of the composition of the food, upon its consumption, and its
productiveness, will be more clearly brought out m the Tables
which next follow (XXII., XXIIL, XXIV., XXV., XXVI.,
and XXVII.), in which the actual results of Tables XIX.,
XX., and XXI. are brought by calculation, to a more convenient
and uniform standard of comparison.

We have also endeavoured to arrange some of the more impor-
tant indications of these six Tables (XXII.-XXVII, inclusive),
in the form of Diagrams; which, with the necessary explana-
tions, will be found at the end of the Paper ; and, it is thought,
that a careful inspection of them, will materially facilitate a clear
conception of the general bearing of the results. A glance even
at the Diagrams will show, how very much greater is the varia-
tion in the proportion of the Nitrogenous constituents consumed
in the diiferent pens by a given weight of animal within a given
time, or which is required to produce a given amount of in-
crease, than is that of the i^on-nitrogenous, or of the Total
Organic substance.

AgrtruUwal Chtmiatry. — Pig Feetlini/.

r -11

■= is

I ii

a It

■si J
'■'s'8

2
1

silS

3 ^ s s

;! 5

S 5

sIsS

5 S r 5

1 s 5

s t

, 1 1 ffi

■ 55!

s ? s

'II

! 5 5 5

f S ! S

s! e

g 1

lzl%

n?5

s! 5

1 t

■III

■ 5f 1

S J s

ll
11

-il

5 a ! 3

?l S B

! S

4!l

s ^ ? 1

|{5 J

ft 5

! I

■Its

■ f :s

! ; i

. ' z

=11

llil

^ ^ s i

i S5 s

s j

•ill

iiS 1

s 5 s

E S

=ii

■ Z I t

. s i' ;

! 5 i

iiii

5*55

5 i I

1 I

sll

nil

5 5 5 5

55 S ' s 5

.ESS

. t z I

S ^ 2

jlil

1 s 1 S

• 2 s

^ ' jiii

:! :ll

\
1 ^

'■ s

t 1 " " " "

------ M " I'

/ /---'

- . - . \ = 5 ^ \ -- \

f.%

Affn'eultural f.Vtfmistry.—Pig Feeding.

■i i

S CO

■i I.

1 ^

111

i^ ■

►.!
.III

-ii

U 1 £

? S S 3

1' S ?

^ =

=i!i

? § s ^

S 6 =

= !

=11

■ lis

, £ ii £

SI 1

^11

nil

isii

I I I

s =

4JI

ill i

nil

si 1

3 S

■ !!f

■ill

If I

■ 1

nil

S 2 S =
= i l! t

S! !

3 3

=yi

nil

11 i 1

I I I

1 1

=ii

■ s ! 1

■ S 8 i

11 I

SEES

s 5 s t

f I i

J 1

f !S ;

f !; S

S ? E

§ i

=li

i i *.

■ ! S 1

il I

• i

'II

i ^ 1 1

ini

11 I

I \

ill!

11 t

i ;

• sM

. J; 1

11 1

~_ '

i
1

1 ■ ■ ■
1 : : :

iiii

1^'

III

t 2
1

Iiii!

III

J 1 " - " "

" " " "

- - «

, 1 \....^., =

Affrkuliural Oliemtstry. — Pig Feediiuj.

•ft

j
i

-■«

Is si

sii !

1 1

1 s 1!

51 i S

1 1

■ f if

. S 2 R

! S 5 E

1 1 1 s

1 1

iJi

S ? S t:

3 E; 3 S

? ?

1 !

=|i

■ lis

■ S = =

j J ? s

S ! I 1

? s

r S

411

!!SE

S i i S

s s

5 J

■ Si!

■tit

-■II

a 5 s J

USE

i k

i i

<tt

US!

*• S S

i 5

i i

• s s s

. s s 5

;

1
1

SEsg

lis 6

i S

i i

! s S t

iili

s s

is s

. 5 s s

. |E s

1 ^

1 - ; :

Pi
iffilf

a
1

1 ^

:;:r:i:ij

: 1 : 1 ' : 1 : li

iril;iiii|

Jill

1 1 — -1-- . . 1 . -1 - .

1 ) — . 1- . - . 1 . =\ ^ .

Agricultural Ohemisfry. — Pig Feeding.

Sj
P

4i\iiti

!l! !

I I

1 1

$ := S £

Ells

° 3

s g

=11

ill!

lis!

1 1

"11

lili

i 1

1 ill

llli

i 1

1 i

.1.-

1 S S !?
1 .-. j. i

. !s -:

1 1

"li

= s 1 i

nil

1 -

= 1;

"ill

= E5 a 5
3 S t 2

l5i!

1 1

»ii

l^ri

1 1 s S

1 1

' 1

"II

Ifsf

5 = 5 5

3 S

i 1

"ii

1 ? 1 1

S s s !

i 5

1 S

=ii

( S! S S

' s i E

■i

"11

liii

Eisi

E 1

i i

llii

Sill

1 1

s s

"!i

1 ss 1

i 1 s 1

1 1

' '

s ■ ■ *

Ihni

mil "

i
J
1

1 : : :

« £ 2 a
|SSS

jlii

1-i

: : : 1

lilt

iliii

■ 1 ■ Jl

lili!

1 1

■> " " "

- « " "

" "

- -

-•-■1 - '-

= =

Agricultural GhemUtry. — Piij Feedhu/.

II
h

ifl

111

3-33

lis

4lj E g I

S 1

I zl t

? E

=!i

if''

1 1

-tt

! f f

I i

lift

f f

=|i

S S 1

, j

'It

? ? ?

£ S

-ill

1 i FT

5 i

■p

= 1 I

I i

=ii

^ ^ 1

I i

5 5^5

i i

s: s 1 1

S S

5 5 !

^ s

ill

Si s ' s

s s

s : 1 1

S S

pill ti

IMS

i
J

i 1 1

1 ,

S i

' ' '

' "

■" " "

Agrindtvral Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

ill

8 1

111

?S2

III

1
i

^11

E = 5

i I

===

^yi

Sri?

t 1

f f 1 1

1 1

5 /

-^11

s g s

1 1

1 /

ills

1 1

i ! i '

! !

=11

1 i 1

1 i

=!!l

i i? 1 ,i

1 i

1 1 1 i

f 1

! i £

! s

S I E "S^

; s

H J , ,

! S

aJI

1 i i

1 1

411

i 15 1

1 1

S i 1 1

! ?

5-J
1 'l

lil 1 1 Jit

fill

1 1 1

- - '

- •

- " "

" •*

Agrkvltwal Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

41 i i i i 1 s 1 1 1 1 i i

s
k

==|| 1 S i E

iiiilil i

5 if

1 i!5 »

IS 1

'11 i 1 i i i

? ? * I

1 '^

? S S S

I! S =

11 s i i Is

(SI!

, ? J 5

1? I

1 ' !

t
1

=5|

Sill

illSlli 1

=^l!

nil

lUSJII 1

-jl

1 = 15

,!5i M 1

1
1
1

=11

S = i S

I i i 1 iE • i

=iJi

8 = 5 =

3 s 1 a

s = 1 : 3

1 s ? 3

I s i; s

1 S 3 1

1
1

! S 1 1

S 1 3 !

■ i 1

! 5 5 i

3 i i i

5 • 2

1 8 S 8

1 3 S S

! i B ] J_

1 2

1 : : ■

■3

jiii

llll

. 5 Q

1^!

: : : 1

Hll

liill

«""« -""»

- " ~ i "

-"-- -•--\-n^\-:;

AffrimJturttl Olumistry. — Pig Ff^ing.

855? 2!s2

1 iS|

=311

SMS

? ? ^ T

'II

1 f !i

51 !

tft.

1
1

=11

i li i

iiii

i 1

\
-^^1

1 Sii

1 Si 1

•11

iiii

Iiii

i ii

4li

i li

•:=*

§ is ! 658 !

t 1

1^1

^l\\\^lkl

1 1

^fM

=»

nil

S ^ i ^

i 1

=11

Iiii

S5I 1

1 5

li 1

-2

°it

1 i ^ ^

. ss ;

1 II .

=11

iiSi iiii

=yi

iiii

£ S ? S
? S s S

=ii

iiii

1 i 1 1

5^ ■

1 : : : : ■ : :

Iiii

i
li

1.3= ls.=
1 S a 5 . S a 1 S

i 1 1

1 !

1 i

iil

- - - -

....

«)

- - - '

- • - -

• 3

Affrifultural Chfmf:tnf^^-Piy Feedinij.

=IJ

S 3 s ?

! 8 2 i

1 i

1 1

11!

i!|l

lilt

i 1

E S

1=11

-S

1 1

' '

-■II

ills

sill

S 3

1 1

=i!!

1 2

1 1

iili

sis!

■ ili

S! i

1 1

=11

iili

ilii

1 1

I i

ilii

is! i

1 1

3 Si

'ii

Ess

£S 1

£i

-■ii

S 3 1 S

S S 1 3

I s

• s

111

i I S 1

ills

1 B

s s

s = s

j 2 5

1 1

1
1

3 = 15

• J j i

S 1

i S

5 1 S 5

3 3 1 a

S 1

! 1

E s 1

1 J 3 g

1 1

a ■ ■ ■

i«l }

Mill
llllil

J
i

s
3

III!
1

fill

llllil

: : :|

its-?

X S H S

ilii^

i 1

1 J

""-"I""""! " "

- «

1 ■ ■ - - I - '-

^ 'i

Ayricultural Chemistry, — Pig Ffediiu/.

Si
H

E ||

or- -«

lit

. I 111

III

-n

. =11

!lii

iiii 11

3 5

i 111

ifii

= n s

f !

1 i

^|1

1 = 9 f

1 £S 5

t )

! =11

liii

iiii

S 3.

i i

' ==!!

iiii

i 1

1 i

' il 'IH

1 1 s 1

■

1 1

=11

I. an

= » »

1 i

5 3 S S

i » = 6

"ill

iiii

i I

1 i

=ir ' 1 5 i

' i« i

1 1

. =11 1 i i 1 1 § 5 1 1 1 i 1

S i

==!! i 1 i s 1 5 s i 5

i 1

E S

■

=j| ' S 5 5 1 1 1 i

1 1

i =1! iiii

iiii

1 i

i 1

1 =5ll i 1 1 i

iiii

1 i

1 1

' 'U

.ssi

ilM

_l_

1 '

1 : : :

4Ui
liUll

lliid

! 1

1 ■ j

■ ■ ■ I

III

iiiy

1 i

1 1

i 1 1 — - 1 ~ .

- -

1 i 1 ....,...,, ^l

AgHcultural Chemistry. — Pig Fffdimj.

ills

1 1

=yi: s irri

i 1

Is'

8 i

=11

i i i

1 1

'ill

1 i 1 s

;

1 s

s S ■

S s

itl

3 2 S

1 1

is~

£ !

•fl

"ll

1 1 ■ ■

1 r

=11

f S 5

;

£ %

=ai

1 3 « S

B i

^if

! 5 . .

3 S

! 5 S

3 1

ill

1 B = S

■

g 1

s s . .

= s

IFrlF

5* ■ ■

ll 1

. . ,

i \ - ~ -

- -

A<iiiiiilliii<it Clifmistiij. — Pin Ffi'ilinii.

! i

ill

&|3

.«8
Hi

=ll| i 1 i

S S 2
S = 3

m^ I iiT

1 ? 1

J|l ! 5 1 '

. t M

'■ll 1 i 1 1

i 1

'3!l| i 1^ 'i i

i i

Jl , s s 1

= s

l»

'II

1 1 1

i i

'Ml

i i^T

i i

; S 1 1

; I

;

'II

i 5 1

l i

1 il 5

I ^

'll

E 1 ! 1

I 1

'11

i i i

i i

'ill

5 SS =

? s

ill

^ S 1 1

1 s

?
S

ill if lit

Ii
PI

1
i

111

ii 1

- -

i \ - - •

, -

AyricuUural Cliemistry. — Pig Feediny, 63

In Tables XXII., XXIIL, XXIV., XXV., XXVI., and
XXVII., we have then, for eacli Series, the actual facts of Tables
XIX., XX., and XXI., reduced bj calculation to one uniform
standard of comparison. That is to say, we have in Tables
XXIL, XXIII.. and XXIV., * for the three Series respectively,
the amounts of the fresh food, and of its various constituents,
consumed weekly per H)0 Ihs, live iceiyht of animal in each pn,
instead of, as in the previous ones, the avfual quantity of food, or
of its constituents, consumed per pen duriny the whole course of
f/ie experiment. And again, we have, in Tables XXV., XXVI.,
and XXVIL, t the amounts of the foods, or their constituents, con-
sumed to produce 100 lbs, increase in live weiyht^ instead of, the
arhwl amounts consumed, to produce the actual amount of increase
obtained jyer pen. We have in previous paijers, when adopting
these methods of representing the results of feeding experiments,
explained the general principle upon which such Tables are
C5alotilated, and we shall not therefore repeat those explanations
here, We may, however, a little further describe the plan of the
Ta>>les as they stand — as well as the materials whence some of
their contents have been derived.

It will be seen, that each of the six Tables, whether relating
to the amounts of food, &c., consumed weekly i)er loo lbs. live
weight of animal, or the amounts consumed to produce 100 lbs.
^roas increase in weight, is divided into two "Divisions."
^/^*ision 1, in every case, gives what may be called the results of
direct experiment — that is to say, the amounts of fresh food con-
sumed, or of those constituents which are calculated directly from
^he quantities of the latter and the Tables of their jier-centage
imposition, as determined by actual analysis. The constituents
^ven in this Division 1, are — the Fresh Food^ the Gross dry
^^cttter, the Mineral matter, the Nitroyen, and the Fatty matter. In
l^^ivision 2, we have — the Dry oryanic matter, the Nitroyenous
^ub^tance, the 'J'otal non-nit royenous substance, the Non-nitro-
fl^noxis substance not Fat, and with these (which, as will be readily
^ideretood, are derived by calculation from those in Division 1),
the Fatty matter is repeated in this Division, for the convenience
^ comparison with them. The dry organic matter, is obtained
^J deducting the mineral matter from the gross dry substance —
^ne nitrogenous substance, by multiplying the nitrogen by G"3,
<>n the assumption that it existed in the foods as protein com-
pounds— a method which we think sufficiently accurate for our
P^^sent purpose. The total non-nitrogenous substance, is obtained
"y deducting the nitrogenous substance from the dry organic
^natter — and the non-nitrogenous substance not fat, by deducting
^'^ fatty matter from the total non-nitrogenous substance.

* See alM Diagram 1. t Sec altH> Diagram II.

64 Agncultural Chemistry — Pig Feeding.

Before considering the results themselves given in these
Tables, it may be as well to say a few words on some of the
questions of interest upon which, we think, they are c^culated to
afford some useful information.

Our readers are aware, that much attention has of late years
been paid to the subject of the adaptation of food, according to its
composition, to the various exigencies of the animal system.
And, it will be admitted, that it is to the experiments and writ-
ings of MM. Boussingault, Liebig, and Dumas, that we must
attribute, either directly or indirectly, much of the progress that
has been made. These writers, as well as many others, whether
tliemselves exprimenters, or more systematic writers on the sub-
ject of the Chemistry of Food, seem with few exceptions, and with
some limitations, to agree on two main points, namely — as to the
relationship of the nitrogenous constituents of food, with the
formation in the animal body of compounds containing nitrogen —
and as to the general connection of the non-nitrogenous consti-
tuents with respiration and the deposition of animal fat. Founded
more or less upon this broad classification of the constituents of
food, according to their supposed varied offices in the animal
economy, a vast number of analyses of foods have of late years
been made ; and from the results of these analyses, numerous
Tables have been constructed, professing to arrange the current
articles of diet, both of man and other animals, according to their
comi>arative values as such. In attempting to apply to practice
the more generally admitted facts to which we have referred, in,
the construction of Tables of the comparative values of foods
according to their composition, it seems to have been generally
iissum^, that our current food-stuffs are thus measurable rather
by their Jiesh-forming than by their more specially respiratori/ and-
fat'fonning capacities. Hence, with some hmitations, the percent-
age of nitrogen has always been taken as the standard of comparison.

Founded on their per-centages of nitrogen, M. Boussingault
first arranged Tables of the comparative value of different articles
of food, chiefly in reference to the dieting of the animals of the
farm. And, in reference to the views and experiments of H.
Boussingault on this subject. Baron Liebig, at p. 869 of the
Third Edition of his Chemical Letters, makes the following
observations : — '^ The admirable experiments of Bonssingaolt
prove, that the increase in the weight of the body in the fattoiing
or feeding of stock (just as is the case with the supply of milk
obtained from milch cows), is in proportion to the amount of
plastic constituents in the daily supply of fodder/' lu like
manner various specimens of flour and of bread have been
arranged by Dr. R. D. Thomson ; other articles of vegetable diet
by Mr. Horsford ; and a large series of aliments frcMn the animal
kmgdom by MM. Schlossberger and Kemp. Dr. Anderaon aho.

Ayrkultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding, 65

m the Report of his elaborate investigation, on the Composition
of Tamips, grown under different circumstances, and in different
fccalities, has taken their per-centage of Nitrogen as the measure
of fcheir comparative feeding values.

It has been found, however, that the indications of Tables of

the comparative values of foods, founded upon their per-centages

of nitrogenous compounds, were frecjuently discrepant T\ith those

^hich common usage, or direct expenments on feeding, seem to

^iVe. These discrepancies have not escaped the attention of some

, of the authors of the theoretical Tables ; but they have attributed

them, rather to erroneous interi)retations of common practice or

experiment, than to any defect in the theoretical method of

estimation. It has been admitted on all hands, however, that

Norther direct experiment bearing upon this important (jucstion

^"^Bs much needed ; and it was the acknowledgement of this

pecessity, and the fact that the further we proceeded with our own

iiivestigations, the more we became convinced that the current

viewB on the subject required some modification — ^that led us to

ff*v-e a paper, " On the Composition of Food in relation to

Inspiration and the Feeding of Animals," at the meeting of the

^^Htish Association held last year at Belfast. That paper is now

"^ print as a " Report " iu the annual volume of the Association.

P^t, as m that medium it will probably come under the notice of

few bat scientific readers, we have been induced, in compliance

^"ith a wish expressed by Mr. Pusey, as the editor of this

journal, to embody in this article, so far as these experiments on

^ga illustrate them, some of the views of tliat paper, which may

"^ of interest more particularly in their agricultural bearings.

Recurring to the question of the adopted views on the subject
^^ the Chemistry of Food, to which we have called attention, we
**^y obBer\'e, that in our paper on Sheep Feeding, in vol. 10,
P^rt 1, of this Journal, we ourselves had, to a certain extent,
Jdopted the current opinion that the increase in weight in the
'ftttening animal vrill bear a pretty direct relationship to the
"'^Pply in the food of the nitrogenous or plastic elements of
Nutrition. At that time, however, we observed in our results,
•oine marked exceptions to this rule ; and we pointed out, that it
J^med to apply only so long as the nitrogenous supplies in the
food did not exc^ a somewhat narrow limit, frequently reached
^ Our current fattening food-stuffs — and beyond which, the pro-
P^ition of increase obtained from a given amount of nitrogenous
^l^Btance consumed seemed to be considerably diminished. In
••tiat paper, we also showed, that the amount of food consumed to
"^ K^Ten weight of animal, within a given time, bore in the experi-
^^nta then brought forward, a much closer relationship to the
*^onnts in the food of the available non-nitrogenous constituents,

66 Agricultural Ch^misfri/. — Pit/ Feeding.

than to those of the nitrogenous ones. The results of the expe-
riments with Pigs, as given in the six Tables now about to be
considered, will l^ found fully to bear out the same conclusions
which those on Sheep seemed to indicate — namely, that, as our
current fattening food-stuffs go, both the amount consumed by a
given weight of animal, within a given time, and that required
to produce a given amount of increase, bear a much closer
relationship to the amounts in the food, of the available non-
nitrogenous constituents, than to those of the nitrogenous ones.

Turning now to the Tables themselves (XXII., XXIIL,
XXIV., XXV., XXVL, and XXVII.), we shall find, that the
colmnns of total dry organic matter, of nitrogenous substance,
and of total non-nitrogenous substance, as given in Division 2 of
each of them will illustrate the points in question. A glance
at the total columns for these three classes of constituents,
throughout the Tables for the three Series as a whole, \vill show,
that in all comparable cases, there is very much more of uni-
formity, in the columns of the total organic mattery or of the total
non-nitrogenous substance, than in those of the fiitrogenous sub-
stance— both in tables XXII., XXIIL, and XXIV., which give
the amounts consumed weekly per 100 lbs. live weight of animal^
and in Tables XXV., XXVL, and XXVIL, which give the
amounts consumed to produce 100 lbs. of increase.*

Some of the deviations from this general regularity in the
amounts of non-nitrogenous, or of total organic substance con-
sumed, clearly show when examined into, that the uniformity
would be even more strict, if the amounts, only of the really
digestible or available respiratory and fat-forming constituents
could have been represented, instead of, as in these Tables, that
of the gross or total organic or non-nitrogenous substance con-
sumed ; and this is more particularly the case in those Tables
which show the amount consumed to produce a given weight of
increase.

Tlius, in reading the figures of the Tables, allowance has to
be made, both for those of the non-nitrogenous constituents of
the food, which would probably become at once effete, and also
for the different respiratory and fat-forming capacities^ so to
speak, of those portions of the food which are digestible and
available for the purposes of the animal economy. For, it
will be remembered — that the Bran, which was given in sach
large quantities in some cases, contains a large quantity of
indigestible and innutritions, and consequently effete woody
fibre — ^that it must require as much as from twice to thrioe
as much of the starchy series of compounds, as of the fatty

* See also the Diagrams.

Agricultural Gheynistry, — Piij Feeding. 67

ones, to afford the same eciuivalent of respiratory and fat-
forming material — and again, that the nitrogenous consti-
tuents, if they took any part in these processes, would have
also their own special eqmvalent or capacity, in these resixxits.
Further, it should be bonie in mind, that even after all due
allowance has been made for those various sources of discrepancy
hi the actual figures of the Tables to which we have referred, the
amounts which we may suppose to be thus corrected, would still
include all those vanations — whether arising from differences
of external circumstances — ^from individual peculiarities in the
?nimalg themselves — ^from the different amounts stored up as
increase according to the adaptation of the foods — or from the
fDany other uncontrollable circumstances, which must always
^terfere with any attempt to bring within the range of accurate
'iQinerical measurement, the results of those processes, in which
^ie subtle principle of animal hfe exerts its influence.

Bearing then those points in mind, which must tend to modify

^*^e indications of the actual figures in the Tables, it will appear,

^^ think, that the coincidences in the amounts of available

^piratory and fat-forming constituents, consumed by a given

'^^ight of animal within a given time, or to produce a given

^ount of gross increase, are much more strikingly shown

^^^ughout the numerous results represented in these Tables,

^^^n a priori we could have expected to find them. With this

S'^Ueral uniformity, however, as to the amounts of non-nitrogenous

^^bctance, consumed under given circumstances, or to produce a

'^^ "€n result, those of the nitrogenous constituents are found to

in the proportion of from one to two^ or even three ; very much

^^-►ie indeed, than is consistent with the idea that the supply of

J *^^8e had regulated either the amounts of food consumed, or of

^^^oxease produced. There may, indeed, be some individual dis-

^T^I»ncy in the figures, not easily accounted for by any of the

^^^^"cumstances to which we have referred ; and which mi^ht

^^t^laps appear to lead to opposite conclusions to those which

^^ would draw from the Tables as a whole. But, we think it

^T^n be much more reasonable to attempt to explain— or, con-

^^ering the nature of the subject, even to admit as inexplicable —

^ few discrepant cases, than to reject on their accoimt, the

B^tieral testimony of much more numerous, consistent, and other-

"^Ue sufficiently conclusive results.

Looking first to Table XXII, which gives the amounts con-
sumed weekly per 100 lbs. live tveiyht in Series I., we find, that
^We is a generally less amount of the ;wn-nitrogenou8 consti-
tuents consumed in the first set of four pens than in the second.
This somewhat less amount of non-nitrogenous constituents con-
sumed per 100 lbs. Hve weight per week in the first set, is, how-

F 2

68 Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding.

ever, more than compensated by the amount of nitrogenous
matter consumed ; and there is, with this larger amount of nitro-
genous matter in the food, upon the whole a somewhat larger
amount of total organic substance consumed in the first set of
four pens than in the second. If we now look down these
columns, either of total dry organic matter, or of non-nitrogenous
substance, and exclude, as we may, pens 9, 10, and 11 (in which
there was given the excessive amounts of bran, and the foods
could not l)e considered as of fattening quality), we cannot fail to
see, a very close uniformity in the amounts consumed of both
these classes of constituents throughout the nine pens. Thus,
taking first the non-nitrogenous substance, the range throughout
these nine comparable pens is between the two extremes of
17^ lbs. and 22^ lbs. Again, in the column of total organic
substance, the range in these nine pens is from 22 lbs. to nearly
28 lbs. ; but among eight of them, it is only from 24^ lbs. to not
quite 28 ll)s. The column of nitrogenous substance, on the other
hand, shows a range in the amount of weekly consumption per
100 lbs. live weight of animal, in these nine pens, of from 2*9 lbs.
in pen 5, to 8*8 lbs. in pen 1. The range of difference, there-
fore, in the amounts of nitrogenous substence consumed, instead
of being, as with the other two constituents, in the highest only
about 25 per cent, above the lowest, is more than 200 per cent.

Turning now to Table XXIII, which gives the same par-
ticulars for the Second Series of experiments, owing to the
genemlly better balance of the constituents of the foods through-
out this Series, we need not exclude any of the 12 pens from
our comparison. Looking first at the column of total twn-
nitrogenous substance (see Division 2), we find the range of
weekly consumption per 100 lbs. live weight of animal, to be
from 14^ lbs. to 23^ lbs. This is, it is true, a considerably
greater range in the amoimts of non-nitrogenous matter consumed,
than in the pens we compared in Series 1. If, however, we were
to exclude pens 1 and 8 from the comparison in this Second
Series, we should find, that the amounts of non-nitrogenous
matter consumed in the remaining ten pens range only from
19*9 lbs., or say 20 lbs., to 28^ lbs. ; and again, the range in the
amounte of the total organic substance, consumed in these ten
pens, is only from about 25 lbs. to 81 lbs. The difference in the
amounts of nitrogenous matter consumed, however, is from
3*9 lbs. to 8*7 lbs. — the highest being therefore, more than 120
per cent, above the lowest.

Comparing the Second Series with the First, the amoimts of
non-nitrogenous substance consumed weekly per 100 lbs. live
weight, are more imiform throughout the former than the latter.
They are, however, rather higher in the Second Series with the

Agricultural Gliemistry, — Piy Feedtmj, 69

Barlej-meal, than in the first with the Indian corn. But, if we refer
to the columns of fatty matter for the two Series respectively, we
fiee, that there is always a somewhat larger amount consumed of
this substance, with its high respiratory and fat-forming capacity,
iu the food of the First Series, than in that of the Second ; and, the
due allowance for this, would in several cases make the differences
in the amounts of non-nitrogenous matter consimied in the two
Series, even somewhat more inconsiderable.

In the Third Series (see Division 2, Table XXIV.), we have

t^he range in the non-nitrogenous matter consumed, from about

1(>^ lbs. to about 25^ lbs.; and in the total dry organic substance,

^lom about 21 lbs. to about 81^ lbs. On the other hand, in this

Series, with the highly nitrogenous Cod-fish, we have, in the

auxounts of nitrogenous matter consumed, a very small range

tiuronghout these five pens compared with that in the other Series

-it being only from 4:'3 lbs. to 5*9 lbs. We shall see pi'esently,

rever, that although there was in this Third Series, a less range

the amounts of nitrogenous substance consumed weekly per

iOO lbs. live weight, than in those either of the pure non-nitro-

K^xxous, or of the total organic constituents — ^yet, there was, in the

5ixxc)unts consumed to produce a yiven tveight of ificrease in this

}, a wider range in the colunm of nitrogenous than in that of

other constituents.

Throughout these experiments, then — in which the animals

allowed to fix for themselves the hmit of their consumption,

^<5CM)rding to the composition of the foods within then* reach — ^we

, as shown in the Tables XXII., XXIII., and XXIV., a

striking coincidence in the amounts of pure non-nitrogenous,

of total dry organic matter, consumed weekly for 100 lbs. live

"^^ight of animal ; and, with the sUght exception in Series 8, a very

oa^nch greater diversity in the amount of the nitrogenous constituents

■^ consumed. There are, indedi, some exceptions to the regularity

^ix the amounts of non-nitrogenous, and of gross organic substance

^^nsumed ; most of which are found, however, on examination, to

P*^ve no exceptions to the conclusion — ^that, other things being

^pal, it was the respiratory and fat-forming exigencies of the

^imak, and not the supplies of the nitrogenous substances in

^®, food, that regulated the amounts of it consumed. Thus, in

^l^iea 1., we have in pens 9, 10, and 11, a generally less amount

9^ iion-nitrogenous and total organic substance, but especially of

^^ latter consumed to a given weight of animal, than in the

^^'"ier pens. But, the difference in the amounts of these substances

^^ilaUe for the purposes of the animal economy, in these pens

?• compared with the rest, is in fact much greater than the figures

f*^ the table seem to indicate ; for, it wiU be remembered, that

*^ these a very large proportion of the food was Bran, containing

70 Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding,

a very large percentage of bulky and innutritions woody fibre,
which appears to have put a limit to consumption, scarcely
beyond the point required for the mere maintenance of the respi-
ratory process ; ana, in these three pens, the animals gave
scarcely half as much increase for a given amount of gross food
consumed as the average of the Series. Hence, as is obvious,
the amounts consumed weekly per 100 lbs. live weight, as given
in the Table, include but a small amount devoted to the pur-
poses of increase ; and represent, therefore, besides that which
was only innutritions woody fibre, httle more than was demanded
by the respiratory requirements of the animal. There was, it is
true, in pen 6, a comparatively small amount of total organic
matter consumed per 100 lbs. of Hve weight ; but a reference to
the columns of nitrogenous and of non-nitrogenous substances
respectively, will show, that the deficiency in this case was rather
in that of the amount of the nitrogenous, than of the non-nitro-
genous constituents. It must be remembered too, that the food
in this pen 5, which was Indian meal exclusively, would possess
a higher respimtory and fat-forming capacity, than that m any
other pen in the Series — and, unlike pens 9, 10, and 11, a very
small amoimt of iimutritious woody fibre. Still, the amount of
non-nitrogenous substance consumed weekly per 100 lbs. live
weight, was comparatively small in this pen ; but we shall pre-
sently find, that notwithstanding this comparatively small amount
of the non-nitrogenous matter consumed to a given weight of
animal within a given time, and also, that we had in this pen
three well fattened pigs — ^yet, in fact, in proportion to the amount
of increafip produced^ the amount of non-nitrogenous matter con-
sumed, was as large here as in anv case in the Series. In pens
1 and 3 again, we have a somewhat low amount of non-nitro-
genous snl>stance consumed, considering that there was in both
pens a good rate of increase. Iif both these pens, however, the
amounts of nitrogenous substance consumed were very high ;
and, owing to this, the amounts of total organic matter consumed
are also somewhat high. It would appear, therefore, that in
these cases, the somewhat small amounts of non-nitrogenous sub-
stance consumed were compensated by the larger amounts of
nitrogenous substance. Part of the larger amounts of the non-
nitrogenous substances taken in the other pens, would seem
therefore to have been substituted, in these cases, by the nitro-
genous substances.

In Series II. there are very few notable exceptions to the rule of
regularity hi the amounts of non-nitrogenous, or total organic mat-
ter, consumed by a given weight of animal within a given time.
There is, however, certainly one such exception ; which, inde^,
might seem to lead to very opposite conclusions to those which

Agricultural Cfwrnistri/. — Pig Feeding. 71

we have fonned from the experiments as a whole. Thus, in Pen

1 of Series II., with Beans and Lentils as the only food — which

contained a larger proportion of the nitrogenous constituents

than any of the other dietaries of the Series — ^we have little

more than two-thirds as much of non-nitrogenous substance, and

only four-fifths as much total dry organic matter consumed as

the average of the Series. In this pen, however, a larger amount

of total dry organic substance, was consumed fo produce a given

^'fnomt of gross incrense, than in many of the pens in the Series

^here the proportion it contained of nitrogenous substance was

^eiy much less. And, when we further consider, that with an

exoessive proportion of nitrogenous substance in the food of the

fattening pig, we have found there was more of a tendency to

^^w in frame and flesh than in other cases — and again, that the

^iger the proportion of flesh in the increase, the less m\\ be the

P^portion in it of real dry substance — it will be seen, that if

^here were a smaller amount of food consumed, there would also

?^ the same time, be a smaller amount of increase produced by

^*^7^-€8pecially of that formed from the non-nitrogenous con-

^^^tnents of the food, and which would contain the largest pro-

i^^itiion of real dry substance. Hence there would be, though a

^^^^iall amount of non-nitrogenous constituents consumed, a larger

^^^^^portion of them available for the respiratory process. This

^^^ irent exception, is not then necessarily adverse to the view,

the respiratory process was the gauge of consumption.

In Series III. again, where we have, in Pens 1 and 2, a com-

•I'atively small amount of non-nitrogenous matter consumed, the

consisted, in a large proportion, of the highly nitrogenous

l-fish ; and in both of these cases, we had not only a very good

^^''^oportion of increase to food consumed, but the pigs in these

"*^ were very fat and well ripened ; and hence, a large proportion

their increase would be real dry substance. It is then, again

i«n the proportion of nitrogenous constituents in the food was

J, that a small amount both of non-nitrogenous substance and

gross dry organic matter, seemed to have sufficed for the wants of

^ animal. This result is in itself interesting ; and it may perhaps

^ t to a comparatively greater efficiency in the already animalized

jin compounds supplied in the Cod-fish, than in those derived,

in the other cases, from the purely vegetable diets. Whether or

^ot there may be any truth in such an explanation of the great

^^Bciency of this highly nitrogenous food, we presume that this

^^■"^sult with the unusual, or at least only very locally adopted

^pod, of fish J can scarcely be taken as contradicting the indica-

^ons of the natural requirements of the fattening pig, such as we

™*^e found them to be so consistently brought out, in so large

* series of experiments, in which he was fed upon his more

^*^^1 and appropriate food.

72 Agrictdtural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

Reviewing then, as a whole, the results of these Three Series
of experiments with Pigs, and carefully considering the bearing
of the various circumstances which must influence our reading
of the actual figures of the Tables relating to them — we think it
cannot be doubted, that here, as we have already shown in the case
of our Sheep experiments, the evidence is very clear, that it is the
TK^n-nitrogenous rather than the nitrogerunis constituents of the foods,
that have been the gauge of, or fixed the limit to — consumption.

We now come to the question of the relationship respectively,
of the nitrogenous and of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the
food, to the amount of increase in live weight obtained in the
fattening Pig. This point is illustrated in Tables XXV., XXVI.,
and XXVII., which give the amounts of fresh food, or of its various
constituents, which were consumed to produce 100 lbs, increase in
live weight of anitnal* In considering these Tables, we most of
course, as before, read the indications of the actual figures, as modi-
fied by the obviously different mpaciii4>s for the purposes of the
animal economy, of the substances the amounts of wnich they in
each case represent. We must remember too, that as in the Tables
showing the relationship of cofisumption to respiration^ the
figures included also the amounts which served to increase the
weight of the animal— so now, in these Tables professing to
show the relationship of the increase to the canstitumts C4msumedy
the figures at the same time include the amounts which have
been expended in the respiratory process. And further, we
should recall to mind the fact, that even the increase itself, will
represent different amounts of total dry or of n(?;»-nitrogenon8
substance, expended to produce it, according to the amounts
respectively, of fat or of flesh, which it may contain.

If we cast the eye down the columns of non-nitrogenous sub-
stance consumed, and more particularly those of the total oigapic
matter, in these Tables (see Division 2, Tables XXV., XXVI.,
and XXVII.), we see, with but few exceptions, a very strikingly
close coincidence in the amounts of these, required to produce
100 lbs. gross increase throughout these three Series of experi-
ments with Pigs. Some of the exceptions, such as those where
a larg:e quantity of Bran was used, are at once explained by a
consideration of the more obvious quaUties of that food ; and
some of the minor differences, by that of the different respiratonr
and fat-forming capacities of those portions of the foods whicm
would be digestible and available for the purposes of the animal
economy. Turning now to the adjoinmg columns in these
Tables, those of the nitrogenous substance consumed to produce a
given weight of increase throughout these three Series, we find the
amount of it as strikingly various as that of the non-nitrogenoas

* See also Olagnin II.

Agricultural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding, 78

matter had been otherwise ; and certainly, in no way consistent
with the view, that the increase of the fattening animal bears any
direct relationship to the supplies in its food of the nitrogenous
or plastic constituents.

Taking the results of each Series separately ; — we may first call
attention to Table XXV., which refers to the first Series of
12 pens. If we again exclude pens 9, 10, and 11 from the
comparison — and certainly the foods in those pens could not be
called fattening foods — we see, that amongst the other nine, the
amoimts of non-nitrogenous substance consumed to produce
100 lbs. increase in live weight, ranged from 275^ lbs. to 877i lbs. ;
and that in seven of the pens the range was only from 309 lbs. to
377^ lbs. In pens 1 and 2, where the food contained so large a
proportion of nitrogenous substance, we see that the amounts of
non-nitrogenous substance consumed to produce a given amount
of increase, was indeed comparatively very small. But, if we
look to the column of total dry organic matter, we shall find that
the amount of this required to produce a given amount of in-
crease was greater in these two pens than in several cases in the
Series where the food contained little more than half as much
nitrogenous substance. The large proportions of nitrogenous
snbstance in the foods of pens 1 and 2, would seem, therefore,
?ot to have really economised material in the production of gross
increase — ^but only to have substituted an even somewhat smaller
amount of non-nitrogenous constituents in that process ; whilst,
^ we have said, there is reason to believe, that a given amount
^' increase obtained from the more non-nitrogenous diets, contains
niore fat, and with this a larger proportion of real dry substance.

Again, if we look down the column of total dry organic

^bstance consumed to produce a given amount of increase, we

^di that the range for the nine pens is from 382 lbs. in pen 8,

^ 533 lbs. in pen 3 ; but of this comparatively large amount of

'^ organic substance consumed in pen 3, to produce 100 lbs.

P^ increase, a larger proportion was nitrogenous substance than

^ *nY other case of the nine pens. In this pen too, with this

^^ large amount of nitrogmous substance, consumed to producs

* 9ivm amount of iyicrease^ there was indeed the minimum

***^Unt in the Series of w^w-nitrogenous substance, consumed

^^*/y mr 100 lbs, live weight. Hence, it would seem, that the

P^Ss had been pushed to the consumption of a larger amount of

^^ogenoua substance than they required, or could turn to any

^?^Cu acooont, in order to secure a suflSciency of the rum-'

^*X>genoufl substances, which existed in the food in such com-

*^*^tively small proportion.

Q*^8wn, in the pen in which there was the next largest amount
total organic substance, consumed to produce a given amount

74 Agrindtural Chemistry, — Pig Feedi)ig,

of increase, namely, pen 4, the food contained both Bran and
a very large proportion of the highly nitrogenous Bean and
Lentil meal. There is, indeed, throughout this Series, scarcely
an instance of deviation from the regularity in the amounts of
non-nitrogenous or dry organic substance, consumed to produce a
given amount of increase, which is not so accounted for by the
character of the food, or by the known progress of the animals,
as consistently to indicate a very close relationship between the
available m?n-nitrogenou8 constituents of the food and the in-
crease of the so-called ^^ fattening " animal. In the column of the
amounts of nitrogenoris constituents, consumed to produce a given
weight of increase, we have, however, no indication whatever
of any direct numerical relationship of the one to the other.
In one of the pens which we have excluded from our calculation
— since the food in it could not be considered of good fattening
quality — there was indeed three and a half times as much nitro-
genous substance, consumed to produce a given amount of increase,
as in one or two of the other pens. But, excluding as before,
pens 9, 10, and 11, from the estimate, we even then find that
the range in the amounts of nitrogenous substance, consumed to
produce 100 lbs. of increase, is from 57 lbs., as in pen 5, or
58^ lbs., as in pen 7, to 138 lbs., as in pen 1, ana even to
161 lbs., as in pen 3. We have, then, among the nine pens
with fattening foods, a variation in the quantities of nitrogenous
substance, consumed to produce a given amount of increase, in
the proportion of from 1 to nearly 3.

In the First Series then, taking the nine pens, we have, even in
the actual figures of the Table (XXV.), a very much closer re-
lationship between the increase produced, and the amounts con-
sumed— of non-nitrogenous, or total organic — ^than of nitrogenous
substance. Whilst, as we have pointed out, the variations in
the amoimts of the non-nitrogenous substance consumed are
generally such as to show, even more clearly, that, beyond a
narrow limit of nitrogenous supply, the proportion of increase
obtained to a given quantity of this consumed, is in a very
rapidly decreasing ratio. There is evidence, however, in the
results, that probably in one or two cases in the Series, the nitro-
genous supply in the food was at the minimum, if not even
somewhat below the amount best adapted as the food of the
fattening pig.

Looking to the same points in Series II. (Table XXVI.), we
see, that there is a very much closer relationship in the amountB
of non-nitrogenous or total dry organic substance, consumed to
produce a given amount of increase, than in Series I. ; and there
IS at the same time, a variation in the amounts of nitrogenous
substance consumed, but httle less than in the nine pens of the

Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding, 76

fonner Series. Thus, among the whole twelve pens, with their
as many different dietaries, the range in the amounts of the non-
nitrogenous matter, consumed to produce 100 lbs. of gross increase,
is only from 817 lbs. to 385 lbs. ; and, that of the total organic
snbBtance, from 408 lbs. to 511 lbs. ; but, that of the nitrogenous
substance, is from 64 lbs. to 152 lbs. In the non-nitrogenous, or
total organic substance, required to produce a given amount of
increase, the range of variation in the highest amount is, there-
fore, only about 25 per cent, above the lowest ; but in the amounts
of the, nitrogenous substance, the range of the highest above the
lowest is nearly 140 per cent. Looking to the figures a little
fliore closely, we see, that in the second set of four pens in this
Second Series, where the amount of nitrogenous substance in the
food was on the average only about half as much as in the first
8et of four pens, there was at the same time, on the average, a
ittle more non-nitrogenous substance, consumed to produce a
given result. In these four pens of the second set, however —
^th their comparatively low amount of nitrogenous substance^
^e have an average of about 50 lbs. less^ of total dry organic
''^ter, consumed to produce 100 lbs. of increase, than in the
P^ns 1 to 4, where it consisted in so much larger a proportion
^^ nitrogenous substance. Nor, will any one practically
*^aainted with pig feeding doubt, that the pigs in pens 5 to 8,
^here the food consisted in such very large proportion of Barley-
?^^, would progress more favourably as to the quality of their
'^<5rease, or, tnat they would contain a larger proportion of fat,
^^d, consequently, more of dry substance, than those upon the
^*^iefly Bean and Lentil dietaries of pens 1 to 4. The coincidence,

^ J, in the amount of total dry organic matter, consumed to pro-

?*J^oe 100 lbs. of increase, in the four pens where the Barley-meal,

^^^th its low supply of nitrogenous substance predominated, is

^^ty striking ; ana especially in three of them, it being in these

?^pectively 449 lbs., 443^ lbs., and 444| Ite. ; and, it was in

^^^8e three pens, that the supply of nitrogenous substance was

?^^ut the lowest in the Series. Ajgain, in three of the pens in

^*^^ first set of four, with the nitrogenous substance generally

^^xible that of the three last alluded to, we have also nearly as

^*<iee a coincidence in the amomits of total dry substance con-

^^j^Ued ; though, as we have before noticed, it was here about

^p lbs. more than in the former. Thus, the amounts consumed

^^ produce 100 lbs. of increase in the three pens with the

^^8Hy nitrogenous food, are respectively 511^ Ids., 499| lbs.,

^^d 503 lbs. ; instead of, as in the three former, only about

^5 lbs.

The fact, that a generally larger amount of total dry organic
^**atter, is required to produce a given amount of increase, the

76 Agricultural Vhemistrt/, — Pig Feeding.

more beyond a certam narrow limit, this organic subfitance
abounds in nitrogenous compounds, is again seen, on comparing
the pens 9 and 10 of this Second Series, with pens 11 and 12.
In pens 11 and 12, we have a larger proportion of Barley-meal,
and less of Beans and Lentils, and therefore, less of nitrogenous
substance consumed, than in pens 9 and 10 ; and with this larger
proportion of nitrogenous substance in the food of pens 9 and
10, we have from 50 lbs. to 70 lbs, more of gross dry organic
substance required to produce 100 lbs. of increase, thaii in the
former. In pens 9 and 10, the food was the same in both cases.
But the amounts of total organic substance consumed to produce
100 lbs. of increase, vary in the two from 452 lbs. to 479 lbs.
In pens 11 and 12, again, the foods were also duplicates. They
contained, as we have said, less nitrogenous substance than
those of pens 9 and 10 ; and we have in them, the lowest
amounts of total organic substance, consumed to produce a given
amount of increase, of any in the Series ; nor is there in these
two cases, a variation of half a pound in the amount of total
organic substance consumed to produce 100 lbs. of increase ; it
being in pen 11, 408*1 lbs., and in pen 12, 407*7 lbs.

Notwithstanding, however, the very clear indications which
this Second Series affords, of the mucn closer connection between
the amount of increase produced, and that of the non-nitrogenous
or total organic substance of the food, than that of the nitro-
genous constituents, it must not be overlooked, that it was in
pen 1, where the proportion of nitrogenous substance in the food
was higher than m any other pen, that we have even a slightly ^
less amount of m?/(-nitrogenous substance, consumed to produce
given amount of increase, than in any other case in the Series^^
The amount of total organic substance^ consumed for the
result in this pen 1, was, however, somewhat greater than the
average of the twelve pens, and greater also than in six of th<
individual pens, in several of which the amount of nitrogenotuuj
substance was only about half as great as in this pen 1. It wonloX
seem, therefore, that this lai^e proportion of nitrc^enous sub-cf
stance in the food of pen 1, had yielaed a comparatively low rat»dt
of gross increase ; whilst this increase, the result of the highly*'^
nitrogenous diet, would probably consist in a less proportion otci
solid fat, and, therefore, in a less proportion also, of real
substance.

The results of Series II., then, very clearly show, the very cl(
connection, between the amount of increase prodnoed and ^bm^
supply in the food of the non-nitrogenous constitnents, or oo
total organic substance — ^independently of its nitrogen, wbBn thk&j
exceeds a somewhat narrow limit ; ana again, as in Series I^ tiw^a
the amount of nitrogenous substance, on the other bimd, conBumeaNE

Agricultural Chemialry, — Pig Feeding. 77

to produce a given amount of gross increase, may vary very
greatly, the range being, in fact, in this Series II., in the propor-
tion of from 1 to nearly 2^.

Taming now to a consideration of tlie same particulars for the
Third Series, as given in Table XXVII. — it will be remembered,
that the food in this Series contained a large amount of the
highly nitrogenous Cod-fish ; and also, that in this Series there
was, in the weekly C4)mufn]}fion bg a given weight of animal^ a less
range from the minimum, of either class of constituents, but
especially of the nitrogenous ones, than in cither of the other
Series. In this Table XXVII., too, showing the amounts of con-
stituents consumed in this Series, to proilme a given amount of
inrr^ase^ we have also a less range in l)oth cla<«5es of constituents
than in the Series I. and II. Still, even here, the range in the
amounts of nitrogenous substance, consumed to produce a given
amount of increase, is somewhat greater, than that of either the
pure non-nitrogenous, or the total organic snl)stance. The smallest
amounts, both of tww-nitrogenous and of total organic sulwtance,
consiuned to produce a given amount of increase, in this Series,
^'^ in pen 2 ; in which the amounts of the nitrogenous sul>stance
alHo was the least. And again, the largest amount of non-
^itrogenous, or of total organic substance re^iuired, were in
P^n 3, where there was, at the same time, the largest supply of
^he nitrogenous sulwtances. The smallest amount of total dry
^'"^anic substance, required to produce a given amount of increase,
^^ovghout the three Serien indeed, was in the pen 2 of this Third
^ries ; and it was here, that the food contained a less proportion
^ indigestible effete matter, than in any other pen in the three
^ries; whilst, at the same time, it had a higher respiratory and
*^^fonning capacity, and a large j^roj^rtion of previously ani-
?*alized protein compounds. With the exception of this pen 2,
**^ which the food was of such concentrated flesh-forming, fat-
^orming, and respiratory capacity, the amounts of non-nitrogenous
^'^d of total organic sul)8tance, consumed to produce a given
amount of increase throughout the Thiixl Series, agree very closely ;
fj^d the amounts in this Series also correspond very closely with
'hose in the Series I. and II. ^Vliilst, however, in the four pens
^^ Series III., now compared together, the amomits of non-nitro-
8^ous, or of total organic substance, consumed to produce a
^Ven result, vary only about lo i)er cent, in the highest above
^^^ lowest — those of the nitrogenous substance in the same pens,
^a*ied about 30 per cent.

Xjpon the whole, then, although the i^esults of this Series, with
^*J^ unusual food of Cod-fish, show less strikingly than those of
^^^ former ones, the closer connection of the non-nitrogenous,
^hnii of the nitrogenous constituents consumed, with the amount

78 Agrkultural Cliemlstry. — Pig Feeding.

of gross increase produced — ^yet still, so far as they go, they are
consistent in their indications.

Reviewing, as a whole, the results of the Three Series of experi-
ments with Pigs — if we consider, that it is the results obtained
under the subtle agency of animal life, that we are seeking to mea-
sure and express in figures — and if we also bear in mind, the varions
sources of modification to which our actual figures must be sub-
mitted, in order to attain their true indications, we think it cannot
be doubted, tliat l)eyond a limit, below which few of our current
fattening Pig foods are found to go, it is rather their supplies of
available /w?/i-nitrogenous constituents, than those of their nitroge-
nous ones, that measui^e, both the amount consumed to a given weight
of animal within a given time, and ths increase in weight obtained.
This result with Pigs, is too, perfectly consistent with that ob-
tained in our experiments with Sheep.

It will be noticed, that wherever the amount of nitrogenons
constituents consumed, either by a given weight of the animal
within a given time, or to produce a given amount of gross in-
crease, was in these pig-feeding experiments comparatively
large, it was where a large proportion of the Leguminous seeds
was employed. Some wTiters who have taken the per centage of
the nitrogenous compounds of food, as the measure of its feeding
value, have recognised, and endeavoured to explain in various
ways, the fact, that the records of feeding experiments, do not
award to the Leguminous seeds, a feeding value in proportion to
tlieir richness in these compounds ; and they have supposed, that
it is the accepted deductions from the practical feeding experi-
ments, and not the theoretical conclusions, that are in error.*
Thus it has been objected against the teachings of such experi-
ments— that the variations in the composition of foods of osten-
sibly the same description used in different cases, has not been
determined ; that the test has l)een the gross increase or loss in
weight ; that the increase may be only fat formed from starch, &c. ;
that loss in weight, if any, may be the result of activity, and not
of defective diet ; that the food in the different cases compared,
has been employ^ in different states, that is, coarse or fine, raw
or cooked ; that the animals have been variously circumstanced
as to temperature, exposure, and activity ; that individual animate
have very various tendencies to increase, and so on. Now, we
believe, that not one of all these objections can vitiate the com-
parisons which we have made ; unless indeed, in some degree, the
one which refers to the difficulty of determining whether the
gross increase obtained be composed chiefly of f(U formed from
the starch and oily series of compounds, or whether of flesh

• See Poetaoript at the end of the Paper.

Agricultural Cliemistry. — Pig Feeding, 79

from the nitrogenous ones. We believe, indeed, from direct ex-
poiiments which we have made, that, in fact, the composition of
oiTr domestic animals generally — but especially that of the gross
/la. crease of the so-call^ ^^ fattening ^^ animals — consists of a much
er proportion of fat, and a much less one of nitrogenous
mpounds. than is usually supposed. The whole question of
limal Composition, however, as illustrated by the experiments
to, we hope to treat of separately, on some other occasion,
mit, apart from the considerations involved in the question of the
.^a^rying composition of the Increase, or from the fact that our
>"v-^Ti feeding experiments (which, so far as we are aware, are the
li^Tgest comparable series bearing upon the point), afford testi-
ony in the same direction, we think, that there is evidence of
other kind, of the general correctness and truth of the indi-
tions of practical experiments which have thus been objected
. Thus, the comparative prices of the Leguminous seeds and
e Cereal grains, may be taken as some condemnation of the
^asurement of their comparative feeding value, according to
:^eir percentage of nitrogenous constituents. In matters of this
~nd, indeed, especially when staple and generally-used articles
food are concerned, the market is one of our shrewdest judges.
While speaking of the comparative feeding values of the
luminous seeds and the Cereal grains, we may here casually
^Uude to some other points of much interest bearing upon this
^'^estion, and which are suggested by a consideration of the
S'^neral results of our feeding experiments, taken in connection
^""ith those on the manuring and growlih of our Leguminous and
^■^'i^aminaoeoufl com and fodder crops.

1- As a general rule it may be said, that, weight for weight, the

^^^uminous seeds contain about twice as much of nitrogenous

^^^pounds as the Cereal grains. We have elsewhere stated.

5^*^^ sp^ikin^ generally, an acre of land, under equal circum-

"^ces of soil and season, will frequently yield twice or thrice

much nitrogenous constituents in a Legmninous crop, as in a

^I'eal grain ; and again, that in the latter, an increase of produce

Hot obtained by the use of nitrogenous manures, except at the

of more nitrogen so supplied in manure, than is contained

the increase thus produced. How is it, we would ask, if this

the case, and if really foods are valuable, at least for the

ening of stock, in proportion to their richness in nitrogenoos

^^Ufitituenta — ^how is it, we would ask, if this be the case, that ao-

^^*tling to the usual state of the market, w^e could obtain for a

^Ven sum about twice as much nitrogenous substance in the

*"*^gununoufl seeds as in the Cereal grains ? — or how is it, on the

^l^er hand, that the Leguminous crop does not, much more thsm

^ in fact the case, supersede the Cfereal grain in the field, the

80 Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

feeding-shed, or even on the table ? We have, it is true, much
yet to learn, of those minor differences of composition, to which
are due the greater or less adaptation to the instinctive wants of
the system, of the various constituents of which our staple articles
of food are made up. But we think, that in no considerations of
this kind, could we seek an adequate solution of our question.
On the other hand, we believe, that in the L^;uminous seeds the
due proportion of the nitrogenous to the non-nitrogenous con-
stituents is not observed. If this be true, it is obvious, that in
the use of the Leguminous seeds instead of the Cereal grains,
more than is requisite of the nitrogenous constituents will be
taken into the system, before the adequate supply be attained, of
the /w?? -nitrogenous or respiratory and fat-forming materials.
Nor, as our markets go, would the relative prices of these seeds
and grains be found to interfere with a somewhat lavish use and
expenditure of nitrogenous compounds in the former.

In the facts which are here briefly stated, we have surely
very curious and interesting matter for reflection ; and we have
brought to our view, a striking instance of the mutual adapta-
tions which are everywhere tracea])le in the practical application
of natural laws. Thus, we have said, that under given circum-
stances, the Leguminous crop will give a much larger acreage
yield of nitrogen than the Cereal grain ; and that an increase of
produce of the latter is not obtained by the use of nitrogenous
manures, except at the cost of more nitrogen in the manure than
is contained in such increased produce ; whilst, in point of fact,
in the ordinary practice of rotation in this country, the growth
of a Leguminous corn or fodder crop, with its high percentage
and actual amount of nitrogen, is itself, frequently either the
direct or indirect source of the nitrogenous manure by which
the increased Cereal is obtained. And, again, this Cereal, ob-
tained at the cost of, but with its lessen^ jrroducs of — nitrogen, is
found in practice to be, weight for weight, of equal, or of a more
highly feeding value, than the more highly nitrogenised Legu-
minous product, which perhaps has been expended to produce
it. It would thus appear, that the demands of the respiratory
function, which have been seen more than any other to r^ulate
the consumption of food, would, in point of fact, not be satisfied
in the use of the Leguminous diet, unless by a consumption or
expenditure of an amount of nitrogen beyond that which the
due balance of the constituents of food would seem to require ;
whilst, on the other hand, in the use of the Cereal grain, its
better proportion of the W(?/j-nitrc^nous to the nitrogenous con-
stituents, has only been attained, by the sacrifice of nitrogen ex-
pended in its growth. It would seem, then, that whd£er we
would seek our supplies of food in the direct use of the highly

Agrietdtural Chemistry, — Pig Feeding. 81

nitrogenous prodncte, or in the better balanced diet of the
Oereu»— in either case the end is attained, only at the cost or
expenditore of nitrogen ; in the one case, by the consumption of
a Jaiger amount of it in the food, than the due balance of its
constituents would seem to require ; whilst, in the other, this
dae balance has not been attained, without the loss of nitrogen
daring growth. The claims of health and natural instinct gene-
rally, leave little doubt which alternative should be adopted, at
least in the case of human food. It becomes us, therefore, to
investigate and understand, the practical bearings of these curious
and interesting facts ; for, upon the principles they involve, de-
pend much for their success, those fundamental practices of the
farm — the feeding of our stock for their double produce of meat
and manure, and the adaptation of our rotations.

Apart from considerations of a more general and extended
bearmg, we may conclude our observations, with a few words on
the more direct application of the results of our experiments to
ike pfactice of Pig-teeding.

It has been seen, that the larger the proportion of nitrogenous
compounds in the food, the greater was the tendency to increase
in name and flesh ; but, that the maturing or ripening of the
animal — ^in fact, its ^^ fattening ^^ — depended very much more on
the amount in the food, of certain digestible non-nitrogenous con-
stituents. It also appears, however, when the price at which the
more highly nitrogenous pig foods could be purchased, is taken
into account, that a given amount of gross increase could be
obtained, at a less cost with some of the highly nitrogenous foods,
than with the more expensive ones, which have an undoubted
character of superiority as pork producers. Were we, indeed,
merely to take into consideration the amount of gross increase
obtained for a given amount of food, of a given money value,
there is no doubt, that in addition to the roots, or wash, or other
matters, which generally form a greater or less proportion of the
food of the pig, it would be the most advantageous, to rely
aihnost exclusively to the end of the fattening process, upon the
highly nitrogenous foods, dried fish, or animal refuse, and the
liegiiminous seeds, beeins, lentils, and the like ; for, in their use,
not only could a given amount of gross increase be obtained at a
lew cost, than by the use of the Cereal grains, but the manure —
the value of which must never be lost sight of in calculating the
economy of the feeding process — ^would be much richer in nitro-
^ thaji if the latter were employed.

Unfortunately, however, it is not only a large amount of gross
^M«« that secures to the farmer a good profit upon his styes,
"^en pigs are fed freely upon highly succulent food, such as
<^ked roots, the refuse of starch-works, and the hke, they are

82 Agricultural Chemistry.-^Pig FmUng.

frequently found to give a very rapid increase. But pork so
fed, is found to sink rapidly in the salting process, and to waste
considerably when boiled. And, although the first batoh of

Sigs so fed may fetch a good price, their character is at once
etected, and the market closed against a second sale. On the
other hand, when pigs are fattened upon the highly nitrogenized
Leguminous seeds — peas being, however, if not an exception, at
any rate much less objectionable than some others — ^the lean is
said to be very hard, and the fat also to waste in cooking. And
again, when fish, fiesh, and some strong flavoured oleaginous
matters are given, the pork is found to be rank in flavour, or
otherwise disagreeably tainted. Common practice, indeed, has
settled, that the Cereal grains with their low per centage of
nitrogenous compounds, constitute in the long ran the staple
food of the fattening pig ; and the whole of the results of the
experiments detailed in this paper bear testimony in favour of
the correctness of this decision. Considering, however, not
only the price at which a given weight of Leguminous seeds can
be purchased, compared with that of the Cereal grains, but also
the increased value of the manure from the former, and their
probably greater tendency to give increase in frame and flesh
— it is obviously the interest of the farmer, to use the highly
nitrogenous Leguminous seeds, and perhaps even refuse flesh
and other such matters, if at command, during the earlier and
more growing stages. But it is certain, that if a constant good
market for the pork is to be secured, these must greatly dimi-
nish, or cease entirely, and the supply of barley-meal, or other
Cereal grain, be substituted for them as the period of fattening
proceeds.

But not only do the principles involved in these su^estions,
apply to the fattening of pigs, but, mutatis mutandis, they are
applicable also to the fatteumg of other animals for the batchy ;
though — since in the case of fattening oxen and sheep, the L^a-
minous seeds, or other highly nitrogenous foods, constitute bat
a small proportion of the total food consumed — any deleterious
influence which an excess of them might have upon the quality
of the flesh, is less likely to occur. Indeed, all our feeding
results consistently show, that the theory which assigns to the
different substances used as fattening foods, a value in propor-
tion to their per centage of nitrogenous compounds, is falu^ioos.
It is probably a consideration of the obviously vast importance
of the functions exercised by the nitrogenous straotures and
fluids of the animal body, which has given rise, in the scientiflc
mind, to the notion of the relatively higher value of foods
according to their richness in nitrogenous constituents. The
economical or commercial estimate, is, however, founded ufoa

Agriniltural Chemistry. — Pi{/ Feeding, 88

very different principles ; and simply takes cognizance of the
rela^tions of supply and demand. Thus, air, water, and other
natural agents, from their vast importance in sustaining animal
and vegetable life, have a high value in a physiological or scien-
tific point of view ; but, from the relations of supply and demand,
they are of little accounted money value. And so it is with
ihe nitrogenous compounds of food ; the functions which they
alone can fulfil in the animal body are of the utmost importance ;
bat in relation \a} the demand for them, it would seem, that our
corrent food stuffs are much more likely to l)e deficient in certain
otJier elements. Indeed, it would be difficult adequately to
account for the comparatively high commercial value of the
foods which contain a comparatively large proportion of certain
^w/^-nitrogenous compounds, except by supposing, that these,
ootnpared with the nitrogenous ones, were in less abundance in
relation to the demands of the animal system for them.

It is not indeed, only in our current fattening foods ^ that the
ttJUount of certain elaborated and digestible non-nitrogenous
ooixstituents, rather than that of the nitrogenous ones, chiefly
determines their relative value ; for, a careful consideration of
>3aa,By human dietaries has led us to similar conclusions. When
remember too, that in using sugar, we do so at the cost
the rejection of all the nitrogenous compounds of the sugar-
p^ne — and, in addition, of heavy money charges — it would seem
improbable that it would Ixjcome an article of diet of such grow-
ii^K necessity in all ranks of society, if our own home-produced
foods were chiefly deficient in the nitrogenous constituents.
A^gain, in the much higher price of butter than cheese, and of
ttLoee cheeses which contain a large prc>poi'tion of butter than
those which are richer in nitrogen, it would seem to Idc further
^Unfitrated, that the demands of the body in relation to the
^^pplies within its reach, arc measured more by the amounts in
^e food, of the non-nitrogenous, than of the nitrogenous con-
stituents. It would perhaps not be difficult to trace the imdue
^imates which, from scientific considerations merely, have
teen made as to the relative value of nitrogen and of mineral
substances in manures, to a source somewhat similar to that
which hafi given to the nitrogenous compounds of food, such a
high theoretical value. For, as it is the mutual relationship of
supply and demand of the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous
conatituents of food, which must chiefly determine their relative
values — 90 it is the relationship of supply and demand of the
nitrogenous and mineral constituents of manures, that must
give to them also their resjxjctive comparative values.

In conclusion, whilst we must not Ix; understood, tts in any
iray depreciating the value of a somewhat liljeral supply of the

84 Agricultural Chemistry. — Pig Feeding.

nitrogenous constituents of food, we would at the same time
repeat, that by the concurrent testimony of all our feeding
experiments, we are led to believe, that on the prevailing views,
too high a relative importance is attributed to them. We have
thought, therefore, that it would conduce to further progress in
this most important field of inquiry, if the current opinions on
the subject were somewhat modified. So general indeed has
been the adoption, both on the Continent and in this country,
of opinions on this subject, for which we have been unable to
discern a sufficient basis of facts, and which at the same time,
seem to be at variance with the indications of direct experi-
ment, that we suppose little apology will be needed, for enter-
ing at the length we have done, into questions, which — involving
as they do, the very fundamental principles of scientific feeding
— appeared to us, to be some of the most interesting and im-
portant lessons which our experiments were calculated to
teach.

Postscript. Decsmberj 1858. — Since this Paper was in type, we
have had the pleasure of intercourse on some of the points to
which it relates, with both Professors Liebig and Boussingault, and
we are glad to ^ther, that they would perhaps somewhat modify
the opinions which have generally been attributed to them. M.
Boussmgault indeed, referred us to the last edition of his * Eco-
nomic Rurale' (Paris 1861), in which both the text and the
tables relating to this subject of feeding, have, compared with the
edition pubUshed some years ago in this country, undergone con-
siderable alteration and enlargement. In this new emtion, M.
Boussingault has clearly pointed out, that the true source of the
discrepancy between the practical and theoretical feeding equiva-
lents of the Leguminous seeds, depends upon their relatively too
small amount of respiratory to nitrogenous constituents. Yet, he
still supposes, that the theoretical estimate (i.e.^ according to the
percentage of nitrogen), must be considered as entirely satisfac-
tory, when only comparing together foods within the same descrip-
tion or class ; the following being the classes he enumerates : —

''1. Hays and Straws."

'' 2. Roots and Tubers.'*

*'S. Oleaginous Grains."

'' 4. The Cereal Grains, the Leguminous Seeds, Oiloakes.**

But, it will be seen, that neither the facts, nor the opinions,
given in this Paper, are in accordance with this Rule.

Agrktdtural Chemistry. — Pig Feeing. 85

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAMS.

DiAOBAM I.— Shows the vropoHionSy respectively, of Nitrogenous^ of Non»
nitrogenouii and of Ihtal Organic iuhdance, oonaumed weekly per 100
i«Ba. LIVE WEIGHT OF ANIMAL, in the different pens throughout the Three
Series of experiments with Pigs.*

NUrogenou* snbstanoe is represented by . . Black.
Non^itrogenoui substance Yellow.

Ihtal organic vi\i«tuioe Bed.

For each oonstitoent, the lowest amoont of it oonsomed in any pen through-
oat the Three Series (see Tables XXJI., XXIII., XXIV.), is taken as - 100 ;
and the proportions of it in each of the other pens, in relation to this mini-
mom amount UMea as 100, is calculated by Bule of Three.

Example— Showing the calculations for the three columns of Pen 1, Scries 1.
—The lowest amount of laTBOOENOUS substance consumed weekly, Ac,
in any pen throughout the Three Series, was 2*91 lbs. in Pen 5, Series 1.
This, therefore, is taken as the standard by which to compare the amounts
of Nitrogenous substance, consumed in each of the other pens, and it is re-
presented as 100 ; and as seen in the Diagram, the column of Nitrogenous
Bubstanoe for Pen 5, Series 1, is coloured (black) only, up to the standard
or base line, 100. In Pen 1, Series 1, the amount of Nitrogenous substance
oonsomed weekly, &c., was 8*84 lbs. Therefore, we say —

2*91 : 8-84 : : 100 : 304 ;

and, oopsegoisntly, the column of Nitrogenous substance, for Pen 1, Series 1,
ia coloured (bUudc), op to 804.

The lowest amoont of non-nitbooenous substance, consumed weekly, &c..
was in Pen 1, Series 2 — ^namely, 14*51 lbs. This, then, is the standard of
oomparlson for all the other pens, as to Non»nitrogenous substance ; and the
^H^1*^"*" f6r that substance, in this Pen 1, Series 2, is coloured (yellow), only
op to the base line, 100. In Pen 1, Series 1, the amount of Non^nitrogenous
gmhstance oonsomed, was 17*68 Iba ; and to get the proportion of this to the
amoont in the standard pen, we say . —

14*51 : 17*63 : : 100 : 122 ;

and henoe, the colomn for Non^itrogenous substance, in Pen 1, Series 1, is
ooloored (yellow), op to 122.

j^mitlj : — the lowest amoont of total oboakio substance consumed, was
20*94 in Pen 2, Series 3 ; and, therefore, the column for tiiis substance,
for tUs Pen 2, Series 3, is coloured (red), only up to 100. The amount of

• Pens 9, 10, and 11 of Sertoi I, being howerer ozoluded, for the reaaoni which \Till be
itndentooa from the text referring to thoae PenB.

AgriettliuraJ Chemistry, — Pig Feeding,

Total Organic Muhstance^ oonsnmed in Pen 1, SerUi 1, was
we aay :—

20-94 : 26*47 : : 100 : 127 ;

and, the oolnmn for Total Organic iubstance, for Pen 1, Seriei
(red), up to 127. And so on, for each eongtitaent, for iXL the i

Diagram II. — Shows the proportions^ respectively, of the Ni
Nan^nitrogenous, and the Total Organic tuhttance^ oonsnmed
100 LBS. GBOSS INGBEASE IN LIVE WEIGHT, in the different poi
the Three Series of experiments with Pigs.* The different oa
represented by the same colours as in Diagram 1. As before,
stitaent, the lowest amount of it in any pen throughout the
(see Tables XXV., XXVI., XXVU.;, is taken as 100 ; and thi
are also made on precisely the stfme plan as for Diagram I.

See foot-note p. 85.

LONDON:
Printed by Wiluam Cloves & Sons, Stamford Street, and CbarlogCrosa.

1854.

Ee-printcd by Dukm & Coidgby, 156 & 157, KlngHland Road, N.E.

1889

THE EQUIVALENCY

SrARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD

J. B. IiAl^TES, P.R.S., F.C.S.; and J. H. GILBERT, Ph.D., P.C.S.

[Ami tbe Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1854.]

LONDON:
PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,

RED LION COURT, TLEKT 8TRBBT.
1855.

THE EQUIVALENCY

STARCH AND SUGAR IN FOOD.

At dbe Meeting of the British Association held at Belfast, we gave a Paper
"Om the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animsby" in which it was illustrated, by reference to numerous experiments,
thai, as our current food-stuff's go, it was the amounts they supplied of the
digestible fion-nitrogenous, rather than those of the nitrogenous constituents,
which aeieris paribus measured both the quantity con^aumed by a given
weight of animal within a given time, and the amount of increase obtained
rrom a given weight of the dry substance of the food. It was demonstrated
too by the results adduced, that much more foU might be stored up in the
juiimal body than existed as fatty matter in the food consumed, and it seein<'d
obvious that at any rate the chief source of this produced fat must be the
starchy and saccharine rather than the nitrogenous constituents of the food.
The investigation now to be recorded might, therefore, be considered as
doselj allied to, or rather in. continuation of the former Ui\% o^ '\tk^>\\T^^>^^
puint particuJaW/ to be illuatnted being the comparalvve Te^\\T^Xj^x'^ ^\)A

fattening capacities of certain of the predominant non-nitrograoaa ooi
ent» of our current vegetable foods, namely, as indicated by the title <
Paper, of Starch and Sugar^ which enter so largely into the compoait
such descriptions of food.

Starch undoubtedly constitutes by far the largest proportion of the d
ible non-nitrogenous matter of the complex vegetable substances, such
cereal grains, potatoes, &c., used as human food ; and it abounds also h
in some articles of diet of the lower animals. Sugar, on the other
although existing to a much smaller extent than Starch in the naturall]
billed vegetable diet of Man, yet, in one of its forms more especially* i
stitutes an important item in his manufactured vegetable food, n
another is a product in the course of transformation of Starch itself, no
in some of our methods of preparing starchy matters for the purposes of
but also in the process of its assimilation by the animal economy. I
moreover, occurs largely in the roots and bulbs which at certain peri*
the year replace the more starchy vegetable products consumed fc
animals of the farm at other seasons* And it has frequently been
that it would be a great boon to the agricultural interest were a coc
able portion of the starchy grains used as cattle-food converted by the
ing process into a peculiar sugar previous to its being employed aa fo
stock. And again, those interested in the growth of cane-sugar hav<
desired to obtain the introduction of the lower qualities of that artidi
free, for feedinff'purpases. In many points of view therefore, both scii
and economical, it seemed desirable to put to the test of actual expei
the comparative respiratory and feeding-capacities o{ Starch and SugoTfi
from the related chemical composition and characters of the subat
coming under these heads, have hitherto, on theoretical grounds alonei
considered as equivalent.

The method adopted to this end was — profiting by the experience o
feeding-experiments — to apportion to the animals under comparative
in several cases, such Affixed amount of highly nitrogenous food as a
leave only the requirement for iton-nitrogenoua constituents in add
which, either in the form of Starch, of Sugar, or both, was then allof
any quantity the animals chose to eat them. In another case, the nil
nous, the starchy, and the saccharine foods were each allowed ad Ut
so that, by the results of the latter arrangement, a judgment could be U
of the sufficiency of the fixed apportionment in the other cases. The ai
and composition of the respective foods consumed, and the weights i
animals at stated periods, form the data for our conclusions.

The animals selected for experiment were pigs ; for, owing to the pi
tionally small amount of necessarily effete substance, such as woody fit
their appropriate food as compared with the grass and hay of the run
animals, the amount of the dry substance of the food taken represents
more nearly in their case the sum of that in the increase and the respii
expenditure than in that of the latter. And owing to this circumstaoc
to the comparatively rapid fattening tendency of these animals, they |
larger proportion of increase in relation to their weight and for a given ai
of fo<id-constituent8 consumed than any other animal of the farm ; th
even in the case of the pig, as has been proved by our previous experii
more than 80 per cent of the dry substance of the food is, so to speal
ipXojeA fiifictionaUy^ that is to say, is eliminated from the body, eitl
Ihe exhalations by the lungs and skin, or in the solid and liquid \
mentB, oolj about 15 per cent, of the whole serving for the increase <
9ub§tance of the body ; thougVi« aa ^iraa %\m %ViQi^\k \w q^t Conner. ]

about twice that amount of starchy, raccbarine, and proteioe matter will
directly contribute to the formation of the fifteen parts of the mixed nitro-
gnwos and,/!il^ substance of the increase, — it being the two former, namely
the Starch and the Sugar, which chiefly minister to the fatty increase.

The detailed arrangement of the experiment was as follows: — Twelve
pigs, carefully chosen for general uniformity as to weight and description,
vcre allotted to four pens, three in each, in such manner that, as far as possible,
mk animal should have its counterpart as to character in each of the other
fm, and so also that the total weight should be nearly the same in each
pa. These objects were well attained in the allotments to pens 1, 2 and S,
the results of which were to be more closely compared ; but in pen 4 the
Hrinals were somewhat larger in frame and of a more growing character.
The folbwing were the weights of the animals in each pen when thus allotted
lad pit up for the experiment : —

Table I. — Weights of the Pigs when put up for experiment (lbs.).

PigNos.

Pen 1.

Pen 2.

Pen 3.

Pen 4.

95
79
72

94 ! 98
80 77
73 74

89
87
86

Total

246

247 1 . 249

262 1

After the allotment as above, each lot was fed for a week on its experi-
■OMal food before commencing the exact experiment, in order to accustom
Ike animals to their new foods and new situation.

The foods employed were : —

LmtUi — as affording a somewhat concentrated supply of nitrogenous con-
mtaenta.

Awi— as characteristically supplying, besides some nitrogenou:*, starchy,
Mifitty matter, a considerable proportion of woody ^bre, which, in the case
if oor ruminant feeding animals, seems so essential to give bu/k to the food.

Ai^ar— coarse brown Penang sugar.

Sirdk — the " potato-starch " of the market.

h the following Table (II.) is given a summary of the results of analysis
rffte foods, there having been always two determinations, or more, agreeing
*dl together in each case.

Table II. — Summary of the per-centage composition of the Foods.

Aaoiptlon of

iBOd.

Dry matter.

Ash.

Nitrogen.

Inclusive
of ash.

Exclusive
of ash.

In fresh
substance.

In dry
substance.

In fresh
substance.

In dry
substance.

lMil.Bieal ...
But

87*32
84 12
93-60
80-43

83 04
78-35
92-79
80-03

4-280
5-768
0*808
0-396

4*901
6-856
0-862
0-492

4-201
2-301
0-193
0167

4-811
2-737
0-206
0*208

stvdi •..•.■•..

It is seen that the Sugar employed contained about 6j| per cent, of moisture,
*wly 1 per cent of mineral impurity, and nearly 0*2 per cent of nitrogen.
^Qtl to rather more than 1 per cent of nitrogenous proximate, if reckoned
^ pmteine compound. The Starch, as has been said, was that sold as ** potato-
"tttth,** and is seen to contain very nearly the same amoxiivl^^ taVt^^^w
^tlie8iigai> but due in its cane to the nilrogenout eeW-m^ic^yraw^. \ck^^

Starch, however, there was nearly ^0 per cent, of water, instead of only
6| per cent, as in the Sugar.

The next Table (III.) shows the daily allowance per head of each i
foods which were given in fixed quantity, and also the amounts consul
those given ctd libitum^ during each fortnightly period of the exper
which in all extended over ten weeks.

Table III. — Showing the daily allowance, or ad lUnlum consumptto
head, of each food during the five separate periods, and the total
of the experiment.

[Quantities in lbs. and ozh.]

Foods — how giYen.

Ist
14 days.

2nd
14 days.

3rd
14 days.

4th
14 days.

5th
14 days.

A«

Lentil-meal.

1.
2.
3.
4.

}

In fixed quantity.
Jd libitum

3 0

4 6}

3 0

2 10

3 0

4 4i

3 8

4 13

3 8
5 lU

Bran.

1.
2.
3.

! 4.

>■ In fixed quantity.
Ad libitum

1 0

0 6)

Sug

ar and Starch.

2.
3.

Ad libitum,
>»

»»

Sugar

Starch

Sugar

Starch

Total

1 7i
1 10^
0 14
0 133

1 lOi
1 lOi
1 5
1 H

2 H
2 24
1 5
1 10

2 24
2 9
1 11
1 141

1 14|

2 Hi

1
1

1 Hi

2 6i

2 15

3 9i

2 6
0 4i

2 14i

r Sugar

Starch

1 4i
0 4

2 9i

0 ^

2"2i
0 3J

2 8
0 3

[Total

1 8i

2 13>

2 Oi

2 lOi

2 6

In pens 1, % and 3, then, there was throughout the experiment a fixi
equal daily allowance per head of the lentil-meal and bran respectivel;
addition to these, the pigs in pen 1 had as much Sugar, those in pen 2 as
Starch* and those in pen 3 as much, both of Sugar and Starch, as the^f
to eat. In pen 4, on the other hand, lentil-meal, bran, sugar and starcJ
each given in a separate trough, and ad libUum; from the consumption
pen 4, therefore, the natural inclination of the animals for the different
could be judged of. At the commencement, the allowance of lentigo
pens 1, 2, and 3 was 3 lbs. per head per day, this amount being indicti
previous experiments, as about that which would, with the bran to be i
afford A due supply of the nitrogenous constituents of food. It was a
seen that the pigs in pen 4, wbicVi ^xed iVvevc ovin consumption of I
ttpective foods, took conaiderab\y mote ot \\i« \\\Vco%^xv^\)a V.w>u\-xMii

h Snd allowaDce of the other peDn; and after the third period, that is, at
he cod ol tiz weeks, the fixed aliowaDce of lentil-meal in pens 1, 2, and S
m inereued from S lbs. to S^ lbs. per head per day. In like manner, 1 lb.
ibnn per head per day was at first given in the pens 1, 2, and S ; but this,
• the other hand, was much more than was taken of it by the pigs in pen 4.
V fixed daily ration of bran per head was therefore, after the second period,
educed from 1 lb. to ^ Ib^ and, during the fourth and fiflh periods, to | lb.
ff head per day. Still even this amount of bran was considerably more
\m that taken at will in pen 4. But one object of the experiment was

r' e a pretty full allowance of the cheaper and less nutritious bran, in
to see whether, when mixed with pure digestible proximate principles,
uk as Sugar and Starch, somewhat more of it could, without dbadvantage,
le oaployed.

hpen 1, where, in addition to the fixed allowance of lentils and bran, a
kKM^was kept constantly supplied with Sugar, it is seen that during the first
hvpefiods there was a gradual Increase in the quantity of it consumed, —
tksfsrage consumption for the whole ten weeks being nearly 2 lbs. of Sugar
pcr^per day. This purely non-nitrogenous substance constituted in fact
ibMt one-thinl of the total food of the animals, — a range of amount, or
fMportioD of the whole consumption, sufficiently great to justify a judg-
Mt, by comparison with that of the Starch, of the relative capacities of the
lit mbstaoces to meet the complex demands of the system of a fattening
irinJ.

Ii pen % Starch was given as the purely non-nitrogenous and ad Ubitum
U; and the average consumption of it over the whole period of ten weeks
Vii rather more than 2 lbs. 2 oz. per head per day. More, therefore, was
caBMuned of the Starch than of the Sugar ; but it will presently be seen that
theaiDoants of the dry substance of the foods were almost identical in the two
ttM, and that therefore the apparently larger consumption of Starch was
■■ply dependent on its containing more of water than the Sugar.

b pen S, in which there was the same fixed allowance of lentils and bran
Ii ii pens 1 and 2, the complementary food consisted of both Sugar and
Iveh. Of these two, taken together, the average daily consumption per
Ind amounted to about 2| lbs. Considerably more, therefore, was eaten of
iifliixinre than of either the Sugar or the Starch when given alone. The
Acton the appetite of the animal of a certain complexity of diet, even in
Ikicue of substances having in one sense equal food capacities, is therefore
tfeHlustrated ; though, owing probably to a somewhat defective proportion
wriirogeDous compounds in the total food of this pen 3, we have not in this
Vi^ad will presently be seen, the advantage of this increased consumption
hi correspondingly greater proportion of increase to the dry substance of
Ik bod consumed.

hi pen 4, where the lentil-meal, the bran, the sugar, and the starch were
Mk put into a separate trough, considerably more of the highly nitrogenous
hltJMneal was eaten than in any of the other caves. And it is remarkable
Iki^with this larger consumption of lentils, scarcely any free Starch was taken,
M of the Sugar more even than in pen 1 , where no free starch was allowed,
bstonly the Sugar as the ad libitum food. This might be accounted for by
|>nM)ciog that the pigs in pen 4 had a larger and sufficient supply of starch
i* ^ larger quantity of lentils taken, and that therefore the system called
far the sugar rather than the addition of starch in the free state; and this
*iilld be to attribute the result to a physiological requirement, apart from
|ht of the palate or stomach merely. It is, however, much mot« UkftV^ t^aAl
■t *•• ampJf a matter of palate and stomach ; for m ipeu ^> ^\i<&t« ^^atf^\M>^

Sugar and Starch werr giTen, a certain portion of each was mtzed with the
limited food ; so that, all except the free Starch being saccharine, the greater
would be the relish for it, and hence we have much more of Starch coosumad
in pen S than in pen 4.

But there is another point that should be noticed before leaving the
question of the dieting of the animals. In a previous experiment with
pigs, in which some of them, which were fed on food comparatively de>
fective in mineral matter, suffered considerably in health, a mixtare of
coal and wood-ashes, superphosphate of lime, and common salt was givei
with the best effects. It was thought, therefore, that io thb oaa^ m
which lentils, sugar, and starch were all somewhat deficient, particakrif
in phosphates, a similar mixture might be useful. Accordingly a miatanor
20 lbs. of the ashes, 2^ lbs. superphosphate of lime, and 2^ Ib^ of oobmi
salt were divided into Tour parts, and one of the fourths given to each pa,
this amount being distributed over fourteen days* This mineral mixtnre vn
always taken with the greatest avidity and relish — so much so, that the animb
would leave their other troughs the moment the fresh supply of this was |ml
within their reach. They were, moreover, upon the whole, very healthf
throughout the experiment, and yielded good rates of increase.

In the next Table (IV.) is shown the per-centage proportion to the Ml
food in which each of the separate articles was consumed during the la^
cessive periods as the experiment progressed.

Table IV. — Per-centage proportion of each food in the total food dariif
each successive period, and the total period of the experiment.

Foods — how given.

l8t

14 days.

2nd
14 dayt.

3rd
14 days.

4th
14 days.

5th
14dayi.

Amm
10 wm

Lentil Meal.

1.
2.
3.
4.

In fixed quantity.

»i
II

Ad Ubiium.

54-90

53*16

53*62

59-39

61-89

5305

5316

53*16

55*37

54-14

5217

46-84

45-32

47-65

52-59

6914

45*64

62-50

63*12

69-77

6M
5M

4M
62-n

Bran.

1.
2.
3.
4.

In fixed quantity
»» i»

AdUbitum!!.,,..

8-94
8-86
7*55
243

4*24
3-95
3*41
1*87

4-42
3-87
8-76
116

KHU
3-11

Sugar and Starch.

1.
2.

Ad libitum, Sugar..
Starch
Sugar..
Starch.

i»

Total

26*79
29*26
15-42
1501

30*43

Sugar..
SUrch

Total..

20*07
4 09

29*11
29*11
20*44
17*10

37-54

45-23
415

37-45
37-97
22*66
24-46

47-12

31-CO
3*47

24-16 \ 49-^ \ ^-^n

36*36
40-68
2301
25*93

48*94

31*25
3*75

^•^

33-68
41*99
21-46
22-18

43-64

29-07

iniiiig fint to pen 4, in which all the foods were taken separately and
II9 it it aeen that the highly Ditrogenous ientiU constituted a con»iderabIy
r proportion df the total food in thi^ pen than in either of the others.
inimals first began, /?/^-/tA«, with an excessive quantity, which seems to
mmoonted for the time to a surfeit; for in the second period they do
ike two-thirds as much as in the first, though afterwards they gradually
Ma to the original amount, but taking then considerably less of the also
f nitrogenous bran than at the commencement In this pen 4, indeed,
ODMimption of hran is at the commencement only about one-third as
•• in the other pens, and it gradually reduces &s the experiment proceeds,
at last it amounts to little more than 1 oz. per head per day. Although,
IbveySO much more of the nitrogenous lentils is consumed in pen 4 than
ter of the others, yet it will afterwards be seen that, taking the lentils
iBWi together, the proportion of total nitrogenous constituents, in the
«f pens 1 and 2 especially, is not so much less than in pen 4 as would
iilMght be assumed from the larger consumption of lentils in the latter;
It may be observed that this proportion of nitrogenous compounds was
I tke other cases still notably higher than in the cereal grains.
1th regard to the more general indications of this Table (IV.), it may be
iriwd that in former experiments, where fattening animals have been
ped high and low nitrogenous foods separately and at their own discre-
tbere has been a very marked increase in the proportion of the nan-
igenous constituents consumed as the animals matured. This is not so
out in the present instance ; but in this case the foods were not of an
nrj kind, and were such as to give more scope for the exercise of the
iaet of the palate. The result is that those animals which were allowed
roam choice of all the foods, took first an excessive amount of the lentils,
^^> EO^^S ^^ ^^^ other extreme, of the Sugar ; so that, with this inci-
Id and more than usual interference of the palate with a naturally greedy
■al, we have the mere progress of the respiratory requirement and fat-
Uttg tendency of the animals less clearly indicated in the selection of
r food according to its ultimate composition.

B Table V. we have the amount of gross food consumed, per 100 lbs.
-weight of animal, per week during each of the successive periods, and
total period of the experiment ; also the amount of gross increase obtained
te consumption of i 00 lbs. of food during the same periods.

ttiV. — Showing the rate of the consumption of food,and of the production
if increase in weight, during the successive periods of the experiment

Description of the
foods.

fixed
quantity.

1 Lentils...
Brmn
Lentils...
firan

1 Lentils...
iBran

None.

Jd libitum.

I Sagar ....

y Starch ...

Sugar ....
Starch ...

(Lentils...
Bran
Sugar ....
Starch ...

Average weekly consumption of total food, per 100 lbs.

live-weight of animal.

1st

period.
14 days.

36*2
37-6

}38-8

41-3

MeMna

T S8'.

2nd
period.
14 days.

31-8
31-9
36-5

31-8

5 I 330

3rd
period.
14 days.

27-9
28*4

32*9

33-1

4th
period.
14 days.

26-6
28-5

32-5

31-9

5th
period.
14 ilays.

23-2

26*5
26-5

30*2

Average
of total
period.

29*0
30-5
33-0

32-6

30-6 \ 29-^

Table (continued).

s
1.

2.
3.

Description of the
foods.

Gross increase obtained by the Qonsumption of
100 lbs. of total food.

fixed

quantity.

Jd libitum.

1st
period.
14 days.

2nd

period.

14 days.

3rd

period.

14 days.

4th

period.

14 da vs.

•

5th

period.

14 days.

Avenge
of toul 1
period. '

r Lentils...

iBran

Lentils...

'Bran

'Lentils...
'.Bran

None

[•Sugar ...

> Starch ...

Sugar ...

Starch ...
'Lentils...

Bran

Sugar ...
^ Starch...

26-6

26-1

.24-8

'25-3

21-9
20-7
201

15-8

18-3
17-3
19-8

25*3

190
2M
16-2

19*4

18-5
14-7
19*0

20-6

20-S

W 1

21-3

20-4

ieans

257

19-6

20-2

18*9

18-2

Although it has already been seen that a larger amount of food was coo*
sumed per head as the pigs increased in weight and fatness, yet it is showi
in Table V. that there was a gradual decrease in the quantity consumed, fxr
i 00 lbs. live-weight of animal, in all cases from the 1st period to the 5th. b
fact, during the short space of five fortnightly periods, the amount of food
consumed in proportion to the weights of the animals is pretty unifonnlyii
the four pens about one-third less in the fifth period than in the first WitI
this decrease in the consumption of fuod in relation to weight, there is at til
same time, as shown in the 2nd division of the table, a considerable decreiM
in the amount of gross increase yielded by a given weigJit of food as the Ih^
tening process progresses. Former experiments have however shown tM
as the animal matures, its increase is much less aqueous; so that moclirf
the lessened productiveness of the food in gross increase is only apparent •
far as real dry substance of growth is concerned. Indeed, a careful coitfi*
deration of the results of the Table, taken in connexion with other knowi
facts, leads to the conclusion that the functional expenditure of constitueottk
so to speak, that is to say, the amount of them required to keep in action tki
machine of life, though not so great in proportion to the weight of tki
animal as it matures, yet continues pretty equally so in proportion to thi
amount of food consumed. On the other hand, the increase attributable H
the remainder, or that portion of the food not so expended, though it fflVJ
be less in gross amount than in the earlier stages of feeding, is probtb^
about equal, so far as the storing up of real dry substance is concerned, b
fact, as the fattening proceeds, less gross weight of increase is obtained fori
given amount of food ; but the quality or food-capacity in its turn of tW
increase is in a corrci^ponding degree the greater. To fatten therefore W
yond the point at which a higher price is obtained for a given weightf
meat, is an advantage to the consumer, and not to the producer of it« ^

In the next Table (VI.) are given the total amounts of each of the h^
foods separately, and the collective foods, and of the dry organic matter, W
mineral matter, and the nitrogen contained in them, which were coma*'
in eacbpen during the ten weeks of the experiment. There is also gives k
the last column of the Table the amount of gross increase yielded in ep*
pen.

ri^-^SIiowiiig the total amounts of fresh foods, and constitaeots, con-
»Mid of iacrease obtained, during the total period of the experiment.

[Quantities in lbs. and tenths.]

Foods — how given.

Gross or
fresh
food.

Dry
organic
matter.

Mineral
matter.

Nitrogen.

Increase.

Lentil Meal.

Bran.

zed quantity— each.
iUbiium

126

99
37

70
2-7

Sugar or Starch.

6Htum, Sugar
Starch
Sugar
Starch

Total

f Sugar
< Starch

[Total

388^
450|
286^
292^

360^
360;
265;
234

•

31
1-8
2-3
1-2

0-7
0-7
0-5
0-5

578^ 499^

446
51

414

3-6
0-2

3-8

0-9
01

497

455

Summary. — Total Food and Increase.

Btfls, Bran and Sugar

and Starch

Sugar and Starch.

t»

»f

>»

11861

1248i
1376^
1462

1017i
1017i
1156^
1264

390
37-6
39-3
45-8

31-9
31-9
32-2
40-6

247

248
272
312

I sufficiently remarkable fact, in relation to the main object of this
tion, namely the question of the equivalency of Starch and Sugar
that with three pigs in each case, the experiment extending over ten
id the ad libitum Starch or Sugar constituting one-third of the total
should have, in pens 1 and 2, in the former with Sugar, and in the
th Starch, absolutely identical amounts of drtf organic substance con-
I the two cases ; and also, within one pound, exactly the same amount
increase in weight yielded by it It thus appears that, whether for
Me of supporting the functional actions of the body, or of minister-
le formation of increase (for, as will be seen, the rate of increase
oth cases good) these two substances have)W^\^lilioT^^\^V|^^>\«^
wdutely idcttiicaL But this point wiU be beU%T ««^ti vcl >^^'\^t^%^

which next follow, in which are given, not the oelua/ amounts of food oreoo-
•lituents consumed, and of increase obtained, but the amounts of food lod
constituents consumed per 100 lbs. live-tceightf and the amounts of each which
were required to produce 100 lbs. of increase \ and the items which are given
in each case are the fresh substance, the gross dry matter, the dry organic
matter, the non-nitrogenous substance, the nitrogenous (proteine) com*
pounds, the nitrogen, and the mineral matter, — the latter including only the
amounts contained in the respective foods, and excluding therefore that given
in the purely mineral mixture.

Table VII. — Showing the average amount of total food or constittiefili

consumed, per 100 lbs, live-weighty per week.

[Quantities in lbs., tenths, &c.]

1.
2.
3.

Detcription of the foods.

Infixed
quantity.

Lentils

Bran

'Lentils.. ..

Bran

r Lentils

\Bran

None

jid libitum.

I Sugar

I Starch

Sugar
Starch

(Lentils
Bran
Sugar
Starch

Means.

Fresh <'"" ^. """■ genou.
food. ^^ °n!«"'Cg«no"«%„b-

Stance.

29*0
30-5
33-0

325

25-8
25-7
28*6

29-0

31-2 I 27-3

24-84
24*86
27-72

28-08

26-38

19-93

4-89

19-96

4-90

22-88

4-85

22-38

5-70

21-29

5-09

•

0-78

0-96

0-78

0-92

0-77

0-94

0-902

l-OfJ
Oil

0-81

Mean of 12 previous experiments.
„ 12 ft tt •••
•» 5 ,» ,» ...

29-5
32-7
32-6

25-9
27-9
270

24-84
26-80
25-27

1915
20-65
19-86

5-69
615
5*42

0-90
0-97
0-87

Ml
IHN
l-M

We have then in Table YII. the average amounts, over the whole peiM
of the experiments, of the various constituents consumed weekly, per lOOk
live-weight of animal: and at the foot of the Table is given a summary if
the same particulars in the cases of three previous series of experimeotis k
two of which there were 12, and in the third 5 pens. A comparison of m
average of these former experiments, in which there was great divenitf^F
fattening food, with that of the present series, sufficiently shows, both m
uniform is the average rate of consumption of the dry substance of the MP
in relation to the weight of the animal when fed under somewhat similarli^
cumstances, and also that the results of the present series, with the food €^
•isting to the amount of one-third of its weight of pure Starch or Sugar, i^
sufficiently normal in character to be trusted in their indications. And ^
same may be said in reference to the amount of increase yielded by a gi*^
weight offoodf as shown by compann^ the new results on this point gif0* J^
Tsiue VIIL with those of the previous on%» m \\i« %\imm%x^ iSl\^ wA rf**

Tamlm VIII«— -Showing the average amount of total food or eonstituent«

consumed, to produce 100 lbs. qfincreoie.

[Quantity in lbs. and tenths.]

Description of the foods.

Fresh
food.

Gross
dry

matter.

Dry
organic
matter.

ATcm-
nitro-
genous
sub-
stance.

Nitro-
genous
sub-
stance

•

In fixed
quantity.

jid libitum.

t
1

/Lentils

;Bran

jLentils

iBran

Lentils

IBran

None

'Sugar .

> Surch .

Sugar

Starch
r Lentils '

Bran

Sugar
L Starch J

> ...

480
503
506

468

427
425
439

417

411-8
410*2
4251

401-8

330*5
329-2
350-6

319-&

81-3
81-0
74-5

82-0

12*90
12*85
11-82

13-01

15-85
15-25
14-51

14-67

Means

489

427 ' A\9*0

332-5

79-7

12-65

15-07

^•»#

Men of 12 previous experiments.

583

511

488*3

376*3

111-9

17-77

23-20

W • 12 fy ff

562

480

461*2

355*9

90-9

16*98

18-93

» 5 „ »y

554

458

429 7

336-6

93-1

15-01

28-77

Looking more closely to the figures in Table VII., it is seen that, except-
hgio pen 4, the amount of nitrogen or nitrogenous constituents consumed

t 100 lbs. live-weight per week was rather less than in the average of
ler experiments; it was, however, greater than in several of the individual
Mi of those former experiments, especially where the cereal grains consti-
IM the chief bulk of the food, as has already been alluded to. In fact,
riioagh the amount of nitrogen consumed in pens 1, 2, and S was less than
vlve the animals took as much of it as they chose to eat, yet even in the^e
^tm it was greater than in the very frequent fattening food of the pig,
VMy, barley-meal, in which, however, the proportion of nitrogen is rather
Mbr than over that which is most favourable for the increase of the fatten-

Again, in pen 2, with one-third of the total food Starch, about 1^ lb. more
kA food is consumed weekly per 100 lbs. live-weight of the animal than in

ri 1, with one-third of it Sugar. But we find that, excluding the moisture
the foods, of which there was more in the Starch than the Sugar, the
nsoDts of dry organic substance consumed are absolutely identical in the
^ caseti. It is obvious then that, the animals having in the two pens only
■hot two-thirds as much material in their lentils and bran as the wants of
fa system called for, the further demand, amounting to one-half more, or
ii^third of the total food, was fulfilled in the respective cases by identical
MMNints of the dry substance of the Sugar and the Starch. These then are
pfietically identical in their capacity of meeting the mixed wants of the
*|^nil body for non-nitrogenous substance. In pen Stth^^^sU^ «!(^tisu»ii'^
^ctnam-nitrogeaous substance per 100 \ba» VVve-^ei^Vit Va t%X\i«t ^Sc«»^A^

than in pens 1 and 2 ; and it is probable that, both Sugar and Starch bnog
allowed in this pen, the greater rariety of food increased the appetite. Then
was also with this greater consumption of non-nitrogenous substance more
both of actual increase of animal, and of increase for a given weight of in'*
trogenous substance consumed, though somewhat less of it in proportion both
to the fton-ni trogenous substance and to the total dry organic sabstanoe of
the food. It may likewii»e be said of pen 4, that, with greater variety in Um
food, more was eaten in relation to the weight of the animal. But in thii
case there was more of the nitrogenous as well as of the noD-nitrogenoQi
constituents consumed ; and with this larger and probably more normal pro-
portion of the latter to the former, we have, as is seen in the next Table
(VIII.), a better proportion of gross increase both to the non-DitrogeBM
subsitance and to the total organic substance consumed.

But the amount of food consumed to a given weight of animal, as shon
in Table VII., represents of course, not only the demands for the maiafeh
nance of the animal machine, that is, of the respiratory and collateral foofr
tions, but al»o those for the growth and permanent increase of the body. Si
also in Table VIII., the average amount of foods consumed for the produ»
lion of 100 lbs. of increase includes also those required for the respiratory
and other functional purposes. In our former Paper, however, read atfielfai^
it was shown that, in the case of a fattening pig then referred to, only about
15 per cent, of the dry substance of the food consumed was stored opia
the animal as non-aqueous increase — about 85 per cent, of the total dry sob-
stance of the food of the animal being therefore expired, perspired, or voided
Although, however, so small a proportion of the food consumed may be adi-
ally stored up in the animal, still a comparison of the amounts of gross food
or constituents consumed to produce a given weight of increase is doubtlsM
of much importance as a measure of the relative feeding-qualities of diflRereit
articles of diet; and this is the point illustrated in Table VIII.

In this Table (VIII.), comparing first together the results of pens 1 and %
we find that not only, as has been already seen, was the rate of consumptifli
of the dry organic substance of the Starch and Sugar exactly identical in rek*
tion to the weight of the animal, but here it is found that the amounts reqaind
to yield a given increase in the weight of the body are also exactly identioili
for 411 1^ lbs. of total dry substance were required to produce 1001ba.of
increase when one-third of the food was Sugar, and 410^ lbs. when one-tbli4
of it was Starch. The equivalency of the two would seem therefore to bt
clearly proved, both for the purpose of the maintenance of the system, and
for that of the increase of the body, of a fattening animal. Against the sboft
quoted amounts of dry substance required in these cases to produce 100 Ibi^
of increase, it required 425 lbs. in pen 3, where the allowance of nitrogenow
constituents was about the same as in pens 1 and 2, but the proportion of
non-nitrogenous constituents eaten was rather greater; and only about 402 lbf»
were required in pen 4, where the consumption of nitrogenous constitueoti
was somewhat greater than in the other cases. Whilst, therefore, as we
have shown in other papers, as our current food-stuffs go, it is frequently
their non-nitrogenous rather than their nitrogenous constituents whieft
measure their combined respiratory and feeding-capacities, yet we have ben
usefully indicated, as also in other cases, the point below which a lessened
amount of nitrogenous conn^tituents is disadvantageous.

In conclusion, the evidence of direct experiment clearly goes to shov

that all but identical amounts of the dry substance of Cane-Sugar and of

Starch are both consumed by a given weight of animal within a given time,

Mad are required to yield a given weight oC \ueteai6e. The practical ideutiiy

^^iloey which from the known chemical relationship of these two
hitherto been assumed, is now therefore experimentally illus-
probably only varies in point of fact with their slightly varying
of carbon.

ane-Sugar has no higher feeding-capacity than Starch, the rcla-
^^^eight for weight, of the sugar, duty free, and of the starchy grains
^^«d for feeding-purposes, will afford an easy means of estimating,
le economy of the use of the former. At the price, including duty,
Penang sugar used in the experiments, it would cost three or
much as the starchy cereal grains at the present time ; and it

v^membered that these would also supply a considerable amount
^ed nitrogenous constituents of food.

Kiew results too, as far as they can be supposed to apply with nu-
^uracy, considering the difference between cane-sugar and the sac*
Blatter of malt, are consistent with direct experiments which we
^ tome time since on the comparative feeding-values of malted and
' grain. Thus, it was shown that the dry substance of malted and
L barley had very nearly equal respiratory and feeding-capacities.

only is the process of malting attended with considerable expense,
H shown in the experiments alluded to, that Uuring the process there
H of 6 per cent, of the gross dry substance of the barley, and of 4

of its total nitrogen, even when the malt-dust was included as a
of the process, and supposed to be equally valuable as food ; whilst,
lUdust were excluded, the loss for feeding-purposes of the dry organic
e of the barley was 10 per cent., and that of its nitrogen 13^ per
; might be true that malt and other saccharine matters might serve
degree to give a relish to the food, and thus induce the animals to
, which in ** fattening" is always a consideration ; but this incidental
ould not counterbalance much increased cost. Indeed the general

experiment is contrary to the conclusion that any extensive use of
feeding-purposes would be such a boon as has been supposed,
roved practical equivalency of Starch and Sugar in food is also of
as has already been alluded to, in reference to some other of the
>DS to which we have arrived in former papers. Thus, it has been
lat a fattening animal assimilates much less nitrogen than has usually
mated ; and further, that it may store up very considerably more
exists ready-formed in its food ; whilst, again, this produced fat is
I in a great measure formed from the starchy and saccharine sub-
vhich constitute so large a proportion of the non-nitrogenous con-

of our staple vegetable foods. It is these starchy and saccharine
es, too, which in practice serve largely to meet the requirements of
ratory function ; and this it has been shown it is that, under ordinary
inces, constitutes, to such an extent, the measure of the amount of the
landed by the animal system.

EXPERIMENTS

ON THB

COlfPARATIVE FATTENING QUALITIES OF
DIFFERENT BREEDS OF SHEEP.

By J. B. LAWBS, Esq., F.R.S.,

OF ROTHAICSTED^ HERTS.

SEE

LONDON.

M D 0 0 C L y .

FROM THE
JOmiNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND,

VOL. XVI., PART I.

EXPERIMENTS

ONTH£

COMPARiTIVE FAHENING QUALITIES OF
DIFFERENT BREEDS OF SHEEP.

No. 3. — Leicesters and Cross-bred^

^ firmer numbers of this Journal, we have detailed the results
^ experiments upon the comparative fattening qualities of the
^^pshire, and the Sussex Downs, and the Cotswold sheep ;
^ in our Report on the latter, we intimated our intention to
f^tate in the succeeding season similar experiments with the
'iiiooln and Leicester breeds. This intention has, however, not
'^Gn entirely carried out ; for, on full inquiry as to the character
^ the so-called Lincoln sheep, and the present extent of its un-
^ed distribution, it was decided, that the comparison of it
ith the Leicesters would be of less interest and utility than
^t of some other animals more closely comparable both by
SSnity and contrast with the latter breed. The well known and
^tensively adopted cross between the Leicester ram and the
^»ex Down ewe was therefore selected for the next experi-
•^nt. And, as both the etoes and wethers of the cross-breed are
^m the first fed for the butcher, it was thought that it might
^ Useful to experiment separately upon each of them. An equal
**>nber then of pure Leicesters, of the cross-bred vxtliers, and of
«c cross-bred ewes, formed the subjects of the experiment now to
•^ recorde<l.
After the full explanation wliich has been given in our former

4 Experiments on the Comparative FaUening Q^itiee

Reports, it is scarcely necessary again to remind the reader that
the comparison sought to he instituted in this series of experi-
ments with different hreeds of sheep is limited to that of the
adaptation of the respective breeds to a system of rapid fattening^
upon a liberal supply of food ; and, that it does not directly
embrace the examination into their aptitude to different localities,
and to widely different methods of feeding.

The general characters of the new Leicester sheep are too
generally known, and too well described elsewhere, to render any
lengthened account suitable to our present purpose. Its remark-
able aptitude to develop flesh and carcass fat^ and to come to
early maturity, are the qualities by which, in a word, it may be
said to be characterized, when compared with most of the breeds
currently adopted under the comparatively modem system of
high feeding. And it is by combining these qualities of the
Leicester sheep with the better fleece, the greater hardiness, the
greater fecundity, and the better nursing qualities of the Sussex
Down, that the cross between the Leicester ram and the Sussex
ewe has been found to be one of the most successful of the breeds
or crosses which it has been sought to adapt to the system of
liberal feeding which now characterizes the sheep farming of a
large proportion of the best cultivated districts of the countiy.

The experiments about to be recorded were made in the winter
and spring of 1852-3.

Fifty Leicester wether lambs were kindly selected by Mr.
Cresswell, of Ravenstone, near Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in October*
1852. At that time, owing to the abundance of keep, store
sheep were exceedingly dear. And, it was even with some
difficulty that 50 good and pure lambs suited to the purposef
could be obtained at anything like a reasonable price. Nor
could it be done at all, except from several different flocks.

The 50 Leicester wether lambs at length selected arrived at
Rothamsted, on October 24, 1852. The cost was S5s. per head
irrespective of expenses. Mr. Cresswell stated, that on com-
paring these wethers with his own ram lambs, he considered thein
not to be quite so large as could be wished ; and he supposed
from their appearance that their growth had been somewhat
checked by the scarcity of food in the previous spring asiO
summer. Upon the whole, however, the sheep were a good sapA
even lot ; and they may doubtless be taken as fully if not ma^^
than equal to the average of the breed in ordinary use. ^

The cross-breds were supplied by Mr. Edmund Farrer, ^•*
Spoole, near Swaffham, Norfolk. They were the produce ^^
South Down ewes, with Leicester rams from the flock of N^ ^

of different Breeds of Sheep. 5

Aylmer. Sixty of the crosi-bred lambs— -ewes and wethers
indiicriminatelj — arrived at Rothamsted on October 24, 1852.
This lot cost 32s. per head. Twenty-five more from the same
flock — ^mized ewes and wethers — were also received on November
13th ; and this second lot cost 33^. per head.

All the experimental sheep, both Leicester wethers, and cross-
lied ewes md wethers, were turned into a meadow as they
siifed; and supplied at once with some pulled turnips, in
Older to accustom them to such food. On November 15th, all
vere put upon the rafters under cover, where the experiment
HI to be conducted ; and, on November 18, each animal was
Npuitely weighed — the wool being by this time dry. At this
n^40 each, of the most even of the Leicester lambs, of the
cnii^bred wethers, and of the cross-bred ewes, were selected;
9if from this time, until December 2, when the exact experi-
BMst commenced, they were allowed half the quantity of dry
bod which they would afterwards receive, and in addition, as
■njr tmnips as they chose to eat

Af with the Hampshire and Sussex Downs, and Cotswolds in
k previous experiments, oil-cake and chver^haff were the dry
fcodt employed ; and Swedish turnips the green food.

The quantities per head per day of the dry foods were allotted
cactly in the same proportion to the average weights of the
*l^, as in the experiments with the other breeds. It may here
1^ noticed in passitag, that the average weight of the Sussex
*koep of the former experiment at its commencement was
88 lbs. ; — ^that of the Hampshires was 118| lbs.; — and that of
^ Cots wold 113^ lbs. That of the sheep now under con-
sideration was, for the Leicesters lOli lbs. ; for the cross-bred
VHhers 95 lbs. ; and for the cross-bred ewes 91f . It was then
QKtly in proportion to these respective weights, that the daily
^ply of dry food was allotted per head for each of the six
'werent breeds.

At the time of the first weighing and selection of the 40 each —

Wcester wethers, cross-bred wethers, and cross-bred ewes— one

^ each was also selected of nearly the average weight, and of

J^ty uniform character with the 40 of its lot to be put under

^^periment ; and, this single sheep of each lot, as in the case of

^ Cotswolds, was killed at once, in the store condition, in order

^ have the means of comparing the proportional weights of the

^^'cass, and of the various parts of the ofial, of the difierent

^P^p, in the store^ and in the yo^ condition. As also in the case

/ Pt'evious experiments, a few of each kind were turned out into

^ field with the ordinary fattening flock of the farm.

6 Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualities

The results of the experiments with the Leicester wett:^
lambs and the cross-bred ewes and wethers, are given in VI
Tables which follow in the same detail as has already been dtvi
for the other breeds. Bat as it is not our intention, at any rate
for the present, to pursue this line of experiment with any otiier
breeds, and as we propose therefore to give a comparative foiD'
marj of the results of the six breeds in the present paper, we
shaU not discuss separately at such length as formerly the detiiir
relating to the three lots which constitute the subject of (b
present Report.

In Tables I., II., and III., pp. 7, 8, and 9, are given, for eidk
lot respectively : —

The weight of each sheep at the commencement of the espen-
ment, Dec. 2, 1852 ;

The gain in weight of each sheep during each experimental
period of 4 weeks ;

The weight of wool from each sheep, shorn April 7, 1853 ;

The total increase of each sheep (including wool), during the
total period of the experiment, namely 20 weeks ;

The final weights, both inclusive and exclusive of wool ;

And, in the 12th column, the average weekly gain of each siiaf
during the 20 weeks. -

There are also given at the foot of these Tables, the toll
weight of the lot of 40 sheep at the beginning and at the end* \
the experiment, the latter both inclusive and exclusive of Wi
the total increase during each period of 4 weeks and the IV -
period of 20 weeks ; as also the total wool. And, in the M
line, the means, or weekly average per head, as the case may bS}'
each of these particulars.

Tabu

of different Breeds of Sheep.

Table I.
InoKMe, &c., of each or the Leicester Sheep.

'"V"

wpT

„.„_

Wnol

wE'k.

;

s
s

s
■s

-i

11-.

IbL
s

1»

i
1

lU.OB.

W It

IbLOB

11
isi!

is'!

iij'l

jtti*

iii,!

IS!!
11

lb..

m
»

"■

•"

«.

»,.

■»"

,«,.

MS IS

»»

M l£|

•YTT

■^r

Ita Dn

■?^

MF»n

i,K.
'ST

IIH.OU.

Mno

8 Experiments on the Cotnparative Fattming Qaalxtia

TAIibU II.
Increase, ftc, of each of the Croos-brcd Wethers.

Shwp,

"'2°

1nnn»

rsb?M.

WmIu

Wool

Wo-k.

Att?a:

•Ir

It.

s
1

i:
1

i
1

lb.

i
i

IbLOB

Si!

lt^<>».

■is
:|
ll

■ 1

11
si

to 7

31 n

"11

ijti!

ill:

m 7

1
1

T.U1.

smi

716

381

.,.

., .

»,

-■

"»•

■tec
's-

nil

IbLoa

"TS

IW-ou.

'^-

Ta.

"rs

liS

3S.

of differeia Breeds of Sheep.

Table III.
Increue, &c., of each of the Cross-bred Ewes.

). JiQ.i;. V«b.M. I

10 Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Q^alitiu

A glance at these Tables shows very great irregularity in tb
apparent rate of increase of the same sheep during differei
periods, and also of different sheep during one and the san
period. This general result we have shown to be very marke
in all our feeding experiments. The variation in the tot
increase per head, among each lot, is also very great ; but th
irregularity, from whatever cause, is obviously much great
among the Leicesters than the cross-breds. It may be due t
the decidedly greater irregularity in weight of the Leicest
lambs when first put up ; but whether this variableness in ra
of increase is really more usual among the lambs of the pu
breed than of the cross-breds, or whether it is only due in tl
present instance to the Leicesters having been drawn from sevei
flocks, and the cross-breds carefully selected from one, we ha.^
not the means of deciding. At any rate however, in the case
our experiment, a given weight of either of the cross-bred Ic
gave a greater average proportion of increase than the Leicest^

The variation in average weekly increase per head, is seen to be-
among the 40 Leicesters, from 1 lb. 3 ozs. to 3 lbs. 5 oei
among the 40 cross-bred wethers, from 1 lb. 11 ozs. to 2 It
13 ozs. ; and among the 40 cross-bred ewes, from 1 lb. 7 ozs.
3 lbs. That the state of the weather was not without some infl^
ence upon the variable rate of increase throughout the differe
monthly periods, would appear from the fact, that all the three U
gave a considerably less amountof increase during the second peri^
— the unusually cold month of January — than at any other tim

These few observations upon the three Tables which show tl
detailed progress of each sheep, are sufficient again to show t^
absolute necessity of operating upon large numbers of animal
and extending our experiments over a considerable period
time, if we would attempt to draw trustworthy conclusions ito
comparative feeding experiments.

In the six following Tables are given, for each lot of sheep s
spectively (Leicesters, cross-bred wethers, and cross-bred ewes) •'

In Table IV. The total foods consume<l, and total increase
live-weight produced, by each lot of 40 sheep, between eB*
weighing (monthly periods). •

In Table V, The quantities of the foods consumed dun-'
each separate period, and the total period of the experiment*
produce 100 lbs. increase in live weight.

In Table VI. The amounts of foods consumed per head xoeeh

In Table VII. The amounts of the foods consumed per lOO ^
live tceiglit weekly.

In Table VIII. The average increase in weight per head wee?!*

In Table IX. The average increase ujton each 100 lbs. /^
weight toeekly.

I
I

£
8

of different Breeds of Sheep.

•0«

^11

x2c6 w

ODwS X X

s w do 00*^

Jl|

■

S vS S wi^

i|s|
a

O * B • •

E • • « •

1
1

Is
§^

•2

s
1

o> o

O .

to*

£<!|>

i 6*t5

CD S

* » » • •

» • • » •

C0 0090MO

• • » • •

OOOO-'

SiiSSS

oo'«e««

SlSSi

AM^OM

SiS§8

oooo«

22SSS

s i

oe^eto

8|s§2

1111

Hid
a

o • ■ « •

£ —

•

I
I

12 ExperimenUm the Comparative FtOtming Qualitiet

I'
a 1-3

JJI

i^l

SQ^SS

PS88S

2
S

Jil

....s

i^l

*»"'

TtSXX

Jji

»l

™*

■

»*S*o

.....

1
1

■s=<5

Ill

^IJ

III

l5-i

i
I

* different Breeds of Sheep.

Table VIII.

9080 per Sead during each separate Period, and the
Total Period of the Experiment.

Qoantities in lbs. and ozs.

ecember 30 . . . .
fanuary 27 . . . .
bmary 24 ....

[arch 24

L121

al Period of the I

Time
in WeekB.

4
4

4
4
4

Ldoesten.

1 14
0 14
3 If

2 13
2 7i

2 3^

Crofl»-lv«d
Wethen.

2 3

1 lU

2 6i

3 0
1 13

2 3^

Crow-ln«d
£we«.

1 14

1 7

2 11^
2 8
2 li

2 2

Table IX.

ease 'per 100 ?&s. itve- Weight during each separate
ind the Total Period of the Experiment.

Quantities in lbs. and ozs.

ecember 30 . . . .
anuary 27 .. ••
bruary 24 ....

[arch 24

121

l1 Period of the)

Time
in Weeks.

4
4
4
4
4

Leicesters.

1 12)

0 12$

2 dl
2 2j

1 12

1 12|

Cross-bred
Wethers.

2 3

1 9f

2 1
2 5#

1 14i

Cross-bred
Ewes.

1 14

have a summary of the actual facts of the
d and the increase in weight, in these feeding
the comparisons which the results involve
y studied in some of the succeeding Tables,
owever, «s indicated in Table IV., that the
ke was increased to each of the three lots,
)er head per day, during the last four weeks

Notwithstanding this there was an increase
(vedes consumed in this period, as compared
ones ; throughout which there had been a
ssive increase in the rate of consumption of
son advanced i This increased consumption
irt due to the deterioration in the quality of
;lves. But it is doubtless in greater part
increased requirements of the animals after

14 Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualitiei

losing the protection of their wool, and it may be recalled to
mind that the same effect was observable in the ezpeiimats
with the Cotswolds and the Hampshu'e and Sussex sheep. The
f^ross increase was, however, by no means in proportion to Ae
increased consumption of food during the last four weeks oC tk
experiment.

Tiiese remarks on the general progress of the experiment ii
shown in Table IV. apply pretty equally to the three lots d
sheep ; though, as is seen in the Table, the increase in the sanlf
of dry food during the last four weeks was, in proportion, nw
greater for the cross-bred ewes than for the other two lots «I
sheep ; for it was considered that, taking into calculation tiieii
progress, their allowance hitherto had perhaps been scaicelj
equal to that of the others, in relation to their mean wei^
throughout ttie experiment.

Table V. — which gives the quantity of each food consumed A
produce 100 lbs. increase in live weighty during each monthlf
period of the experiment — shows an extraordinary variatioi ■
the apparent effect of the food as measured by increase^ Avxa%
the different periods. This irregularity is notably greater witk
the Leicesters than with either ojf the cross-breds. It is at tb
same time apparent that there was somewhat of a general tenden?
among the three lots to greater or less rate of increase, at one Ml
the same period. Thus all three consume a larger amoonft*
food for a given effect during the second period ; during the flirt
two periods there was a somewhat better result with all ; ^
during the final month there was again a tendency with aUft
consume a larger amount of food for a given amount of intieift
These observations only tend again to prove the necessity f^
extending comparative feeding experiments over a consideiabl'
length of time ; and this will be further seen from the observe
tions which next follow.

Notwithstanding the very great differences which TaUe V
as just noticed, shows in the amounts of food consumed darii*
one period of the experiment compared with another to produ^
100 lbs. of increase — and also the great difference in the amoo0'^
consumed by the different lots of shfcep for a given effect durid
each separate period — still, the base line of the table, whic
gives the average amount consumed, to produce 100 lbs. ^
increase during the total period of the experiment, shows, tit'
thus taking the whole course of the experiment, the three kv
consumed almost identical amounts of the respective foodsi
produce a given weight of increase. The identity of the figuc^
is indeed quite remarkable, in a series of comparative trials ^
such a scale. Though, if the variations, small as they are, ^
to be taken as indicating any real difference between the lots*

qf different Breeds of Sheep, 15

lould teem, that the cross-bred eices have given somewhat the
kit aocoi|iit of the food which they have consumed.

Table VI. shows the amounts of the foods consumed per head
ftt wedi. But as the allowance of the dry foods (until it was
ktreased during the last period of the experiment) was allotted
sized quantity in relation to the weights of the animals at the
lipDoing, the variation in their amounts during the first four
IBods indicates nothing more than the variation in the original
lights of the different lots of sheep. However, we see, that
liNFifeiage consumption per head of stvedes, which were given
tilMum, varies among the three lots as nearly as possible in
tkame ratio as that of the other foods ; and hence, it would
MMT, that in relation to the weights of the animals, the re-
jfMniients of food are the same for the three lots. This point
■ ktter seen in Table VII.

h Table VII., we have the average weekly consumption of
lisi per 100 lbs. live weight of animal^ instead of per head. The
%iies in this Table show that the cross-bred wethers consumed
tliwr the most of each of the three foods in relation to their
Mige weight throughout the experiment. The cross-bred
•• were the next in order in this respect, whilst the Leicesters
QMined the least. Since, however, we have seen in Table V.
4n Ae cross-bred ewes gave if anything a somewhat better rate
tfiKrease in relation to food consumed than the Leicesters, the
<%htly larger consumption by them in relation to weight within

* liven time is at any rate no disadvantage.

« Table VIII. we have the average weekly increase per head,
^^th great fluctuation in this respect between the three lots at
'^'Oy separate period of weighing, there is -comparatively little
■fcence taking the average of the whole period. We would
••e, however, fix attention upon the fact that in these experi-
ments with 40 sheep of good quality in each lot, fed under
•'tor — the experiment extending over 20 weeks, and with food
•ttinly superior to that which is frequently given to fatting
■•ep — we have with neither lot an average weekly gain in weight
' 8i lbs. per head. We refer to this point particularly, as a fur-
^ proof of the over-estimations which are frequently founded
POQ experiments conducted on a comparatively limited scale.

In Table IX. we have the average weekly gain per cent.^ that
9 per 100 lbs. live weight of animal^ instead o( per head. We see
^ that with neither lot of slieep is there an average gain of
per cent, per week upon the live weight. Both the lots of
^^•»-breds gave a somewhat higher rate of increase, in propor-
** to their weight, than the Leicesters : the amounts being, for

* cross-bred wethers 1 lb. 14^ ozs. ; for the cross-bred ewes
*^« 14 ozs. ; and for the Leicesters 1 lb. 12f ozs.

an the Comparative Fatiemng QuaHiies

Upon the whole, then, comparing the
with the cross between the Leicester ram and the SoatUiy
ewe, when fed under cover upon a liberal supply of good h
the results, so far as the relation of gross increase to food c
sumed is concerned, are very nearly identical ; but if there li
difference sufficiently marked in these experiments, it is certu
in several points somewhat in favour of the cross-breds ; wU
among the latter, the eices would seem to make mutton nl
faster than the wethers.

The circumstances of these experiments were certainly si
favour of the requirements of the pure Leicester breed;
rather the hardier qualities of the cross with the Southdown l
not put to the test. Nine of the Leicester lambs purchi
were, however, wintered with the ordinary flock on the fin
and it should be remarked that they none of them stood
winter so well as the main flock — a cross between the Hal
shire and Sussex Down : several of these 9 Leicesters
deed died ; and none of them did well. It is to be regre
that an equal number of the cross-bred wethers and ewes (1
cester and Southdown) were not at command to turn out by
side of the pure Leicesters, two only of the cross-breds h
wintered in the field ; these two, however, stood the winter i
Such a result is, in the general, much what we should have
pected. But it is only fair to say that the 9 Leicesters wl
were turned out were the worst of the 50 lambs purchased ;
it is not improbable, therefore, that they were somewhat
representatives of their race.

xhe next point of comparison is as to the wool ; the amoi
of which are given in Table X., which follows.

Table X.

Leicesters shorn

Cross-bred Wethers shorn
Cross-bred Ewes shorn

April 7, 1853

9 t
99

Average Wool
per Head.

lbs. OZ8.

8 2i

6 7

7 3^

Proportion of H

in 100lbi.Iii

Weight of ADi»

the time of bd

Sbaau

5*58
4-60
5-40

The three lots of sheep were shorn on April 7th, 1853, bai
been washed a week previously. The average yield of «
per head is seen to be 8 lbs. 2^ ozs. for the Leicesl
7 lbs. 3^ ozs. for the cross-bred ewes, and 6 lbs. 7 ozs. for

of different Breeds of Sheep. 17

•-bred wethers. The average for the cross-breds is there-
B tbout 6 lbs. ISozs. per head. The Leicesters therefore
vgiTen an average of nearly 1^ lb. more weight of wool per
id than the cross-breds. The respective money values of the
erent descriptions of wool will be referred to further on.
[lie second column of the Table (X.) shows that the pure
oesters and cross-bred ewes each gave about 5i per cent, of
f weight of wool at the time of shearing ; and the cross-bred
kr only about 4^ per cent.

U in the case of the breeds previously reported upon, some
Ine Leicesters and cross-breds were killed at home, and the
i|^ of the carcasses and of the different parts of the offal
mi; some were sold alive ; and a few kept to be fed till the
dbtanas following. The main experiments with the Hamp-
n and Sussex Downs had been extended over 26 weeks ; that
k the Cotswolds only 20 weeks, when some of them were
ad to be already even too fat. These Leicesters and cross-
di also were kept on fattening food for only 20 weeks. But,
fpeared by the results, neither of these three lots was as well
Boted as had been the Hampshire and Sussex Downs and the
tnvolds.

Meach of the lots of 40 sheep under consideration, 16 were
Ifid at home, and their carcasses sent to Newgate market ;
Vere sold alive at Smithfield ; and 8 retained for further
loiing.

Hie 16 killed at home were —

The 4 of largest increase.
The 4 of smallest increase, and
The 8 of medium increase.

ne 16 sent to Smithfield alive were, respectively —

The 8 of the next largest^ and

The 8 of the next smallest increase — to the lots of 4 each
above mentioned.

"he remaining 8 of each lot were fed till Christmas.

'he following Table (XI.) — giving the mean increase per
\ average weight of wool per head, and average weights of
sheep at the commencement and at the conclusion of the
sriment — shows how far the method of allotment adopted
ight together pretty average qualities within each lot in these
•ects. The only point deserving any notice is, that the sheep
.ted for feeding until Christmas appear to have been on an
age somewhat lighter throughout than the other lots.

18 Experiments on tlie Comparative Fattening Qualities

Table XI.

Average Increase per Head,
including Wool.

Averaae Wool per Haid
(SboraAprilT).

•

Leicesters.

Cross-bred
Wethers.

Cross-bred
Ewes.

Leicesters.

Crois^ind
Wetben.

OnmtHi

Mean of 16 killed atl

home /

Mean of 16 sold alive
Mean of 8 tobe fed till j
Christmas /

lbs. oxs.
44 8i
44 5
44 11

lbs. ozs.
44 14i
44 9i
43 8|

lbs. ozs.
42 lOi
42 4
42 111

lbs. ots.
8 3
8 I
8 3

lbs. OSS.
6 ^
6 lOi
5 101

urn

Mean of 40 Sheep

44 9

44 8 ; 42 8

8 2^

6 7

7«

Average Original Weight,
I)ec. 2, 1852.

Average FfaialWririhl,^
April 21. 1853 (witbont wd^

Leicesters.

Cross-bred
Wethers.

Cross-bred
Ewes.

Leicesters.

Crow^red
Wetbera.

cmmi

Mean of 16 killed atl

home /

Mean of 16 sold alive
Mean of 8 to be fed tilH
Christmas /

lbs. OSS.
102 2
102 5
97 12

lbs. ozs.

95 8

96 2
92 4

lbs. OSS.
91 1
91 14
90 6

lbs. OSS.
138 7
138 13
134 4

lbs. OSS.
183 ISi
134 1

130 2

lll.»

ISiB
iSilt

Mean of 40 Sheep

101 5

95 1^ 91 4

137 12

133 3

The following Table (XII.) gives the dead-weit^hts^ Scc^id^
sheep killed at home, by the side of some particulars of Alf
whilst alive. And we have, especially in the summary gHo
at the foot of the Table, the means of comparing the state 9
maturity and quality as meat-producers, both of the lots of dv
ferent rates of increase within each breed, and of the avenf0i
the whole 16 of each killed. {See pp, 20, 21.)

The construction of this Table (XII.) is designed to show A
connection between the tendency to rapid increase and olbi
particulars of the sheep wliilst alive, on the one hand, and tboi
ascertained on killing them, on the other. The first obsenrati^
that occurs on looking at the Table is that which has been mi^
in reference to other breeds — viz., that there is among aniiB^
of pretty equal increase great diversity in other qualities. ^
is not, however, either equally marked with these three lot9
sheep, or in relation to all the qualities indicated in the Table*

Thus, in each of the three lots, the animals brought togtA
as having increased nearly equally show a considerable divest
in amount of wool, in original weight, in final weight; aft
pretty generally, in actual carcass-weight, in proporlion

of different Breeds of Sheep. 1 9

flcass-weight to live-weight, and particularly in the percentage
(loose or inside fat.

In the summary at the bottom of the Table we have again
lx)WD, that which has already been otherwise indicated, the
nch greater irregularity in the rate of increase among the
Uieesters than among either of the cross-bred lots. Thus,
■ng the Leicesters the average gain of the 4 of smallest
lome is less than half that of the 4 of greatest increase ; the
■■bers being, for the former 28 lbs. per head, and for the latter
Bilbt. The variation among the cross-breds is much less,
bio^ the toethers the average gain of the 4 of smallest increase
fulfil lbs., and that of the 4 of largest increase 55 j^ lbs. ; and
ksng the eweSy that of the 4 of smallest increase was 32| lbs.,
iJofthe 4 of largest increase 52} lbs. The bottom lines ojf
hm columns of increase show, however, that although the dif-
snoes were much greater within one lot than another, yet the
Mniffe increase per head of each lot of 40 sheep was very nearly
ieatical for the Leicesters, cross-bred wethers, and cross-bred
M. It was, however, for the ewes about 2 lbs. less than for
Aet of the other lots.

With, as already noticed, great diversity in the amount of
VdI yielded by sheep of nearly equal increase, we have still,
nh all three lots, somewhat more wool with the sheep of largest
than with those of either smallest or medium rate of
The summary shows too, as we should expect, that in
tdi of the allotments, according to increase, the Leicesters give
Me wool than the cross-breds ; and, among the cross-breds,
^ ewes give upon the whole more wool than the wethers.

The actual carcass or dead weight (calculated in stones of
Ok.) varies among the 16 Leicesters killed from little more
ttn 6i stones to nearly 12^ stones ; among the 16 cross-bred
^ers it ranges only from nearly 8 stones to nearly 1(H stones ;
id among the slaughtered cross-bred ewes the variation is from
My 7f stones to 9f stones. With this great variation in the
ioiuit of meat produced per head, and particularly among the
cioesters, the average of the whole 16 of each lot killed agrees
^ nearly than we should have expected. Thus the average
idd of mutton of the 16 Leicesters killed is about 9^ stones;
^of the cross-bred wethers 9^ stones; and of the cross-bred
•et nearly 8| stones. The cross-breds have therefore given,
* the average, nearly as much meat per head as the Leicesters.
^ aheady intimated, however, all three lots would have been
**Hewhat better for another month of feeding ; which, we may
"colate, would have given at tliat stage of the fattening pro-
^ an average of nearly a stone per head more carcass-weight
^ each of the three lots of sheep.

Experiments on the Comparative Fatiemng Qualities

Table XII.

Sheep.
Nos.

T ^««.. Cro«»- Cro«H-
^^^ bred bred
W"- WeOKn., Ewe*.

IS
17

35
6
9

Mean of the 4 Urgeat .

7
23
88
35

8
85

88
SI
14
12

Mean of the 4 gmalleat

12
28
36
17
3
10
18
40

6
26
33
20
U

5
19
14

10
15
26
40
2

Mean of the 8 medium

WsiGHTS Alivb.

Increaae per Head,

including Wool,

in 20 Weeks.

Leicea-
ters.

lba.oz.
66 4
62 12
62 0
56 0

61 12

31 0
31 9
25 12
23 11

28 0

Cron-

bred

Wctben.

IbtLOZ.

56 12
56 0

55 10
53 12

55 8i

36 13
36 6
34 8
33 7

Ct08»-

bred

Ewes.

lbs. ox.
59 14
51 6
50 14
49 4

52 13i

34 12
33 8
33 6
29 7

35 4| 32 12t

46 3
45 14
45 7
45 5
44 2
43 4
41 10
41 8

44 2i

45 12

45 4

44 12

44 9

44 8

44 5

43 13

42 8

44 7

43 10
43 8
43 8
42 10
42 3
41 12
41 6
41 4

42 7i

Wool per Head,
Shorn April 7.

l/eices-
ters.

lbs. ox.

10 4

8 12

10 0

9 12

6 0

8 9

9 12
6 11

7 12

Cross-
bred

lbs. ox.
8 12
7 0
7 10
6 12

7 H

5 13

5 6
7 8

6 7

6 4*

8 3

6 14
8 7

8 3

9 2

7 4
6 10
6 8

4 12

5 4

6 12
6 9

5 8
8 5

6 13
6 8

Cross-
bred
Ewes.

lb8.oz.
7 14
7 6

6 14

7 4

7 5i

6 12

5 8

6 6
6 7

6 44

7 10

6 8

7 8

5 10
7 8

7 12

6 6

8 4

7 m

6 5

7 14

Origfaial Wei^t,
December 2nd. 1«S.

Leioes-

texs.

lbs. ox.
119 0
121 0
117 0
108 0

bred
W«ilias.

116 4

96 0

92 0

93 0

84 0

91 4

114 0

100 0

89 0

106 0

105 0

95 0

105 0

91 0

lbs. OX.
88 0
88 0
99 0

102 0

95 8

91 0

88 0

100 0

96 0

94 4

95 0
108 0

88 0
98 0

101 0

89 0

96 0
100 0

bred

lbs. OB.
84 0
91 0
96 0
91 O

90 4

90 0

91 0
98 0
89 0

90 8

86 O

98 O

86 0
98 0

87 0
96 0
91 0
98 O

100 8

96 8

m •

MP •

IM •

Mi «

lit •

101 •

111 I

tst I
Hi I
m I
i« 1

140 1
lU <

I4i I

Ui I

»1 12 I

1S7 I

Summary.

Mean of the 4 largest.

61 12

55 84

52 134

9 12

7 84

7 54

116 4

96 8

90 4

188 4

Mean of the 4 smallest

26 0

35 4i

32 124

7 12

6 44

91 4

94 4

90 8

111 1

Mean of the 8 medium

44 H

44 7

42 74

7 lOi

6 5

7 14

100 8

96 8

91 18

va 1

Mean of 16 killed . .

44 a^

44 144

42 104

8 3

6 9i

6 154

102 2

96 8

•1 1

\m 1

Mean of the 40 Sheep.

44 9

44 8 { 42 8

H 21

6 7

7 34

101 6

96 14

tl 4

oj different Breed* of Sheep.

Table XII.

M»m.

Weights Dbao.

rtiiiiniijiiT

hoon after killing.

Proportion

ofColdCarcaaB

in 100

Unlkrted Weight.

Proportion
of Cold Carcass

in 100
Farted Weight.

Proportion of

Loose or Inside Fat

in 100

Fssted Weiaht.

inelnding Wool.

ten.

Om»-

brad

Wdben.

CroM-

br«d

Ewes.

Leices-
ten.

Croat-
bred
Wethcn.

Croa»-

bred

Ewes.

'«»* 'Wrthen.

Cross-
bred
Ewes.

Leioes-
ters-

Cross-

brtMi

Wethen.

Cross-
bred
Ewes.

'^^1^*^*

lbs. OS.

Ibs-Oi.

lbs. OS.

ST 14

76 1

75 4

'i5*9

55*9

55*3

61*2

60*4

61*7

4*80

4*60

5*98

i^Wfli 0

99 15

83 IS

76 1

87*1

59*0

56*4

62*5

64*0

62*4

5*19

6*49

5*05

»•

a» 0

94 5

81 8

76 9

86*8

86*4

55*1

60*8

60*4

61*2

5*56

4*08

6*94

lit 0

86 A

88 6

70 10

56-8

15*3

53*1

61*9

61*0

59*8

4*46

5*85

5*06

mis

94 11

80 15

74 10

56*2

56*4

65*0

61*6

61*4

61*8

5*00

5*09

5*74

IM 0

6ft ft

66 11

63 14

54*0

54*7

54*1

59*4

60*6

60*8

507

4*81

6*18

M7 0

57 10

63 4

66 0

50*1

53*8

55*5

55*4

59*7

61*7

8*81

4*71

7*19

■*ir ■

m 0

56 6

64 10

66 11

53*6

50*9

56*0

58*4

56*2

61*7

8*08

5*69

4*78

•

Ml 0

60 7

67 11

61 8

49*9

54*2

54*9

54*8

58*4

60*3

8*07

6*10

4*87

Mils

57 15

65 9 64 8^

51*9

53*2

56*1

57*0

58*7

61*0

8*59

5*80

5*74

in 0

68 11

77 9

64 5

56*3

57*0

52*7

63*3 1 63*6

57*4

4*64

6*19

5*98

ISI 0

77 14

79 5

74 6

56*0

55*9

55*1

61*8

59*2

60*5

4*78

7*85

5*48

fe»

111 0

63 14

70 12

66 6

50*7

56*1

54*4

56*5

62*1

59*8

8*86

5*64

5*88

IM 0

79 15

77 10

78 4

56*3

57*1

58*0

61*5

61*1

68*1

6*74

6*01

6*18

110 0

78 8

79 9

67 5

55*8

56*8

55*2

60*1

68*1

61*8

4*83

4'T7

6*78

118 0

71 7

67 0

69 13

54*5

53*6

53*7

62*1

58*3

59*8

5*08

8*88

6*84

k-f

lis 0

79 5

71 8

71 13

86*6

53*8

57*0

68*0

56*7

61*9

8*74

4*68

5*59

119 0

69 9

75 1

70 1

54*9

55*2

56*0

59*1

62*6

68*5

5*68

6*10

5*56

lift It

76 0|

74 121 70 41

55*4

55*7

55*3

60*8

60*7

4*90

5*55

5*84

Summary.

•

i]»l

in IS

94 11

80 15

74 10

56*8

56*4

55*0

61*6

61*4

61*3

5*00

5*09

5*74

lot IS

57 1ft

65 9

64 81

51*9

53*2

55*1

57*0

58*7

61*0

8*59

5*80

6*74

1 • lU ul

76 01

74 I2t

70 4i

55*4

55*7

55*3

60*8

60*7

4*90

5*55

5*84

1 • 114 IS 1 76 81

74 Ok

69 144

54*7

55*8

55*2

60*0

60*5

60*9

4*60

5*35

5*79

22 Experiments on the Comparative FaJtteniny Qualitiet

From the circumstance, too, of the sheep being rather
fattened, the proportion of carcass to live weight is genem]
somewhat small among these three lots of sheep. In the Table t
proportion of dead or carcass weight, calculated both to tbe a
fasted and the fasted live-weight, is givea But as in the wiltiti
condition the animals are likely to retain much more vanik
amounts of unassimilated food — affecting: therefore considenU
the weight of the stomach and intestines — the percentifK
carcass in the fasted weight gives us the safest ground of (■■
parison. Among the sheep of largest increase we see a J^
tendency to a greater percentage of carcass among the Leioeili
than the cross-breds. Among those of the smallest inaressc^i
the other hand, the difference is in favour of the cross-bndi
and it is here also more marked than with the lots of laqi
increase. Among these lots of smallest increase, too, the cni
bred etces give a markedly better proportion of carcass thia tl
wethers. The mean percentage relation of carcass to fittt
weight, among the sheep of medium rate of increase, is corioH
identical for the three descriptions of sheep. It is also, as la
in the bottom line of the summary, very nearly identical ford
three lots, taking the mean of the whole 16 killed in each oi
It is, however, slightly better with the cross-breds than witlii
Leicesters ; and, among the former, slightly better with the iW
than with the wethers.

Considering the general points of contrast between the LePi
ter and Southdown sheep — and especially the admitted gttt^
tendency of the former to fatten in carcass and come eailj^
maturity — we should perhaps have anticipated a better prof*
tion of dead or carcass to live- weight among the Leicester! ^
the cross-breds ; and more especially so under the circumstidl'
of our experiment, in which its perhaps somewhat premati
termination would, we should suppose, have been more advc
to the cross-bred than to the generally earlier ripening f
Leicesters. We leave it to the reader to decide whether
results, as the figures show them, should be considered true il
cations of the comparative qualities of pure Leicesters and en
breds ; or whether the obviously greater irregularity among
sheep composing our flock of the pure breed should be taka
evidence of a less successful selection for the purposes of
experiment in their case than in that of the cross-breds.

The only further point to notice, relating to the dead-we^
is as to the proportion of loose or inside fat. The general *
tinctive character of Leicesters and Downs is pretty well be
out by the figures under this head. Thus, notwithstanding-
considerable variation in the amounts yielded by tWiruf
within each breed, there is an obvious tendency in the

of different Breeds of Sheep.

breds-^both among those of largest, of smallest, and of medium
JDcrease — ^to give a greater amount of " loose," " inside," or
^'ofiJ" fat than the Leicesters. The amount is obviously

Etertoo, among the cross-bred ewes than the cross-bred wethers-
paring on this point the cross-breds, as a whole, with the
Ifkesters, we should, as already said, have anticipated a larger
pportion of inside fat among the former than the latter. But

Chave with this, at the same time, a general tendency to
proportion of cctrcass^weigkt also among the cross-breds, it
Iplil seem that they had perhaps, in point of fact, made, up to
Vm tiaie of killing, nearly as large a proportion, both of carcass
■i rf inside — that is, of total- fat-^and were therefore in reality
MiAr '* ripened," as the Leicesters, and this result we scarcely
iknla have looked for.

,^pon the whole, then, the result indicated by a consideration
^ttii Table (XII.) of the particulars of the live and dead
fiigilti of those of the sheep killed at home is, that the Lei-
flten, although they have given, in individual cases^ a very large
ttms-weight, have, on the average, given not more than half a
Itae per head above the cross-breds ; that the cross-breds, and
VpecuUy the ewes, have given a somewhat better proportion of
•tais-weight to live- weight ; and more obviously still, the
Oon-breds, and again the ewes in particular, have given the

t(t proportion of inside or loose fat.
the Tables which next follow are given the particulars of
•fc of the three lots of sheep.

Table XIII.
Particulars of Salie of the Leicesters,

l|fcwp-4of Largest, CarcMses at
f*i4of SmaUest In-} l ^^^^^^ "
•ewe ) ^ "

••edium Sheep .. ..| J ?'

2 per Btone
0

» t

> > *

Wool 1

Skins .. .. .'. 0

Heads & Plucks 1

Loose Fat .. .. 6

f »

• »

3 per lb.

9 each

3 ,,

3f pier lb.

^ttg, %d, per head ;- Selling and Charges at Newgate\
■wket, 14#. lOrf /'

Net for 1 6 Sheep sold dead

Net per head

Weight.

lbs. (o.

407 0

188 0

69 0

525 0

131 2

100 8

Produce of
Sale.

£. 8, d.

10 U 11
4 l4 0

1 15 2

13 13 3

8 3 11

0 12 0
10 0

1 11 5

42 1 8
1 5 6

40 16 2

2 11 0

24 Experiments on the Comparative FatUning Qfialitii

Table XIII. — continued.

Wcli^t

16 Sheep sold aUve, viz {g al 3^'! ^' l""**

Wool at Is. Sd, per lb.

Ibt. OS.

• •

128*15

I
1

Commission and Selling

■ •

Net for 16 Sheen sold alive

• •

Net ner head

Summary.

16 Sheep sold dead rincluding Wool)

16 Sheep sold alive Cincluding Wool)

8 Sheep not sold, estimated at the price of those sold alive

Average per head (induding Wool)

4
3
I

Table XIV.
Particulars of Sale of the Cross-bred Wethers.

8 Sheep— 4 of Largest,] s. d,

and 4 of Smallest In-> Carcasses at ..4 2 per stone

crease |

8 medium Sheep .... ,, 4 2 ,,

Wool 1 5 per lb.

Skins 0 9 each

Heads & Plucks 13 , ,

Loose Fat.. .. 0 3} per lb.

Weight

Killing, Bd, per head ; Selling and Charges at Newgatel
Market, 14s. 2<f.

Net for 16 Sheep sold dead
Net per head

lbs. oc.
569 0

579 0
105 11

* .

110 12

16 Sheep sold alive at 41s. per head
Wool at Is. 5a. per lb.

Commission and Selling .
Net for 16 Sheep sold alive
Net per head

106 3

4
3

\ ••

ofiiffermt Breedt of Sheep.
Table XIV.-

Weight

Pnxlii««r

SCHMABV.

Via. o>.

3! 9 af

iKdd, Mtimattd M the price of thow Mid «liT«

19 17 10^

99 a 9{

«ge per head (intluding Wool)

2 3 f^

Table XV.
Futicolan of Sale of the Cross-bred Ewea.

WddiL

FndiiHof

SLJltTTn- aCarcawwiit 4 4'per«oi>e

'»^" -■■{ e ,, 4 2 ,,

Wool I 5 per lb.

SkiDi 0 9 each

Heada&Plocka 1 3 ,,
Loom Fat.. .. 0 Sfperlb.

las 0

416 0
135 0
410 0
114 3

11913

£. : d.

8 7 8
10 16 8

3 8 10
10 13 6

8 1 91

0 12 0

1 0 0
1 16 3

per bead; SelliDg ud Charget u Newgate!

39 19 Bl
I 4 B

38 11 0}

8 8 H

iso' 1

WooUt 1«. sd. per lb

a 10 1

miwioD aod S^iQg

88 18 1
0 10 8 .

SuMiuar.

88 7 6

19 3 81

96 2 IJ

*ge per head (including Wool)

u.«>

26 Experiments on tli^e Comparative FcUtening Qaalida

The carcasses of the 16 of each lot killed at home were loldat
Newgate Market on April 25th and 27th, and the offal and loose U
were sold at home. The 16 of each sold alive were sent to Smi4r
field on April 25th. The 8 of each kept to be fed till Christmuu
calculated at the prices obtained per head for those sold alire. T\i
wool was not sold, but was valued, according to the prices Ac
ruling, at Is, 5d, per lb. for the cross-breds, and 1«. 3d per II
for the Leicestcrs. Both mutton and wool were excee^^l
dear at the time of these sales, compared with those ofAi
Hampshircs, Sussex Downs, and Cotswolds ; but the Leiorti
and cross-bred lambs were also purchased at a very high pikCi

The prices per stone (of 8 lbs.) of the sheep sold dead range
for the Leicesters, from 4«. to 4^. 2rf., giving an average
As. lid. The cross-bred wether carcasses all sold at 4f. 2d [
stone ; the ewes at from 4^. Id. to 4^. Ad.y giving an average
about 45. 2d. The difference of price in favour of the aw
bred carcasses is only, therefore, about J^. per stone of 8 Ifc
which is certainly less than we should have expected. This w
probably due to the rather under-fattened condition of the M
mals, which would not perhaps have the tendency to deprecii
the price per stone of the Leicesters so much as that of the cm
breds, which latter particularly would certainly have been h
proved if they had had a little more time. The wool ctt
Leicester sheep amounted to about 10^. 2d. per head ; that ofll
cross-bred wethers to 9^. Aid. ; and of the cross-bred ewa i
10*. Aid. These prices will give an average of somewhat h
than 6d. per head in favour of the Leicesters over the crou-hd
on the score of wool. In loose fat the Leicesters yielded ah
3d. per head less tlmn the cross-breds.

Of the 16 sheep of each lot sold alive, the prices per head
the Leicesters ranged from 385. to 405., giving an average of 3!
per head. The cross-bred wethers sold for 4l5., and the citt
bred ewes for 385., giWn^ an average of 395. 6d. per head.

The general result as to price is, that, of the sheep sold do
the Leicesters gave, including wool and offal, an average
about 2/. lis. ; the cross-bred wethers 21. 9s. 4d., and the cio
bred ewes about 21. 8s. 2d. per head.

Of the sheep sold alive (including wool), the Leioeit
averaged 21. 85. 5d. ; the cross-bred wethers, 21. 9s. 9i ; ^
cross-bred ewes 21. 8s. : or an average per head for the en
breds of about 2/. 85. 1 Ol^d.

Of the sheep sold dead, therefore, the price per head is ah
25. in favour of the Leicesters ; and of those sold alive abont 1
in favour of the cross-breds. The ewe mutton, both alire n
dead, fetched rather less than the wether.

Taking the average of the 40 sold (the 8 not sold Imm^

*»

of different Breeds of Slteep,

mated at the prices of those sold alive), the produce per head
is, for the Leicesters, 2/. 9^. 5Jrf. ; for the cross-bred wethers,
2i 9«. 6|rf. ; for the cross-bred ewes, 2/. 8^. Oid. : or an average
for the 80 cross-breds — mixed ewes and wethers — of about
U&. 9id' ; ^}^^^ is, on the whole, about 8d, per head less for
die cross-breds than for the Leicesters.

In giving a balance-sheet of these experiments, we must

vnterate a protest against any great reliance being placed on

■ooey calculations of this kind^ in which the rates both of pur-

dnse and sale are subject to so many fluctuating circumstances.

Sndi a balani^e-sheet may be of some use to those who will

Mcept it with due qualification ; but, even then, not as a means

tf Beasuring^ the profit er loss of the feeding process, which

nvolve so many other considerations than the mere cost of the

itore animals and their food on the one hand, and their produce

rf »ale on the other. It is only given then as a means of aiding

• comparison between the particular lots under consideration,

iod even then it must be borne in mind that, in going into the

( market to procure animals pure as to breed, and to a certain

, firtent even and above average quality, something like a fancy

price must be paid for the stores, which will vary according to

tbe trouble that has been taken and the number of flocks that

we been visited in making the selection. Given then with

we cautions, the following ar6 balance-sheets for the Leicesters,

<*08»-bred wethers, and cross-bred ewes respectively.

Table XVI.
Balance Account of the Leicesters.

Ooit of 40 Leicester Lambs at SGs. 6(/. per head . . . .
They consumed of purchased food : —

4704 lbs. Oilcake at 8/. per ton

4480 lbs. Clover Hay at 4/. 10«. per ton .. ..

Total purchased food

^ Pat Leicester Sheep and Wool sold, April, 1853, for
Difference

C 8, d,
73 0 0

25 16 0

98 16 0
98 17 Hi

0 1 11}

Table XVIL

28 Experiments on tJie ComparoHve Fattening QftalitieB

Tablb XVIL
Balance Account of the Cross-bred Wethers.

Co8t of 40 Cross-bred Wether Lambs at S4<. per head
They coDSomed of purchased food: —

4704 lbs. Oilcake at 8/. per ton

4480 lbs. Clover Hay at 4/. 10«. per ton .. ..

Total purchased food

40 Fat Cross-bred Wethers and Wool sold, April, 1853, for

Difference

£. f. ^
68 0 0

25 Ut

93 16 •
99 I 4

5 6 <

Table XVIII.
Balanco Account of the Cross-bred Ewes.

Cost of 40 Cross-bred Ewe Lambs at 3d«. per head . .
They consumed of purchased food: —

4480lbs. Oilcake at 8/. per ton

4256 lbs. Clover Hay at 4/. lOs. per ton ....

Total purchased food

40 Fat Cross-bred Ewes and Wool sold, April, 1853, for

Difference

a ■

16 0
8 11

0
0

£. s. i
66 0 »

• •

24 11 •

m •

90 11 •
96 2 4

5 11 1{

The Lciccsters, as before stated, cost 35«. per head wM
bought, and, in addition to this, Zd, per head per week is chaipil
for their board up to the time of commencii^ the experisittrtt
which brings them to 36«. 6^. on December 2nd.

The larger number of the cross-breds were- bought in at 3b
per head ; but others, which arrived some weeks later, cost 83l»*
charging, as before, Zd. per head per week for boards the cnn^
brcds average 33«. %d. per head at the commencement of the tir
periment ; but as the mean live-weight of the wetktr stores v*^
about 4 lbs. more than that of the ewes, the former are reckons''
as costing 34^., and the latter 33«. per head.

On former occasions we have charged the oilcake at 6/. If'*'
per ton, and the clover-hay at 4/. per ton : both these, howefcT^
were much dearer at the time of this experiment, and tbej tf^
charged therefore at their market prices at the time, witboi^^
carriage— viz., the oilcake at 8/. per ton, and the clovcr-bsj ^^
il lOs.

of different Breeds of Sheep. S9

In Table XVI. it is seen that, upon the estimates assumed,
'- 40 fat Leicester sheep, with their wool, sold for only 2«.
>re than the cost of the lambs, together with that of the oil-
ke and clover-chaff; leaving, therefore, the manure of the cake,
»ver, and turnips to pay for the turnips and attendance, lodg-
f, &c.

Balancing the cross-breds on the same plan, it is seen that the
Efarf give 5/. 6«. 10^., and the ewes 51. lis. 2(/., besides their
mure, to pay for the turnips, attendance, &c.
Hus kind of calculation would therefore tell very much in
RMr of the cross-breds in this particular experiment. But it
ijbe well to observe that a reduction of 25. 6d. per head on
e|iice of the Leicester lambs — that is, if we charge them the
■e as the cross-bred wethers, at 34^., instead of 36^. 6^. —
«U bring them to pretty nearly an equality with the other
•* Before, therefore, any reliance can be placed in the com-
rison between Leicesters and cross-breds which this balance-
!#t shows, it should be decided what in practice would, on the
Bnge, be the relative cost of Leicester lambs averaging 101 lbs.
t h^, and of cross-bred wethers weighing 95 lbs. And with
lew to a judgment on this point, it may be mentioned that our
'Xtti prices on this occasion represent the Leicesters as costing
wit 4td. more per 100 lbs. live weight than the cross-breds.
B suppose, therefore, the price paid for the Leicesters to be
ittrely somewhat too high. The actual prices adopted also
nesent the cross-bred ewes as worth 3d. or 4d. more per 100
w live weight than the wethers ; and considering their slightly
'ter yield, both of wool and meat, for food consumed, it is
i^aps not unfair to estimate the ewe lambs as fully equal in
He, weight for weight, to the wethers. Assuming, then, tha
ttive prices of the ewe and wether lambs to have been fair, our
snce-sheet shows an advantage of a few shillings on the 40
ep in favour of the ewes over the wethers, and certainly we
find them to give slightly the best accoimt of the food they
sumed.

7pon the whole, then, the general results of this comparative
1 between the Leicesters and their cross with the South-Down

liat the cross-breds consumed slightly more food, in relation
Gi given weight of animal, within a given time, than the
testers.

*hat the Leicesters and cross-bred wethers consumed all but
itical amounts of food to produce a given amount of increase,
the cross-bred eioes rather less than either.
*hat the cross-breds yielded slightly the most increase upon a
m weight of animal within a given time.

30 Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualitiei

That the Leicesters gave rather more wool, both per head a
per cent, upon their weight, and the cross-bred ewes moreil
the wethers.

That the fat Leicesters averaged only about 4 lbs. more weig
per carcass than the cross-breds.

That the cross-breds gave, within a given time, slightly t
highest percentage of dead-weight to live-weight ; rather the m
loose or inside fat (especially the ewes), and slightly the higk
price per stone of mutton.

And finally, when sold dead, the Leicesters, — and when M
alive the mixed cross-bred, — gave slightly the highest aven
price per head.

With the above observations we conclude the compan
between the Leicesters and cross-breds alone^ as rapid fattea
on a liberal system of feeding and management ; and in the of
* Tabulated Summary ' of the results which next follows (T»
XIX.), we include those of the Hampshire and Sussex Doi
and Cotswolds. Henceforth, therefore, the whole six lots
sheep will be compared together.

Taking the items of comparative interest somewhat in 1
order in which they stand in this Tabulated Summary ^ it is M
that of the six lots that have been experimented upon, the Co
wolds give by far the largest average weekly increase per hei
indeed, about half as much more than either the Sussex, Leioal
or cross-bred sheep, and nearly one -fourth more than the Hal
shires, which are the second in order of rate of increase per k
per week.

The increase per 100 lbs. live xceightper week^ as given in thcl
line of the first or upper division of the Summary Table, does i
8}iow by any means such a variation in the rate of increase amc
the six lots, when it is thus calculated in relation to their resp*
tivc weights instead of per head. Still, even in this respect,
Cotswolds stand the first ; next come the cross-breds ; then
Hampshires and Leicesters ; and lastly the Sussex Downs. 1
rate of increase thus calculated in relation to the average weigh
the animal is for the Cotswolds one-tenth more than for
cross-breds, and from one- seventh to one-sixth more than for
Hampshires, Leicesters, and Sussex Downs. It is here wimt
of observation, that, excluding the Leicesters, the order in wh
the different lots gave increase in relation to their weight
obviously pretty nearly the inverse of that of the quality cf
mutton. That is to say, those which have given the greaJ
increase in proportion to their weight yield the coarsest matt
and those which gave the least increase in relation to their weij
the finest mutton. Consistently with this view, the Leicest
however, fall somewhat sliort in the rate of their increase o

sider

of different Breeds of Sheep,

Table XIX.

sal Summary of Experiments with Hampshire and Sussex Downs, Cotswolds,
Leicestera, Cross-bred Wethers, and Cross-bred Ewes.

Hants.

Sussex.

Cotswolds.

Leioesterv.

Cross-bred
Wethers.

Cross-bred
Ewes^

Nov. 1880.

Nov. 1850.

Dec. 1851,

Dec 1858.

Dec. 1858,

Dec. 1858.

PAMICDIABS.

■to

May. 1851,

May. 1851.

Apra. 1838.

April. 1853.

26
Weeks.

86
Weeks.

80
Weeks.

•

80
Weeks.

lbs. OS.

lbs. OK.

Iba. 01.

lbs. OL

lbs. OK.

Hlilht per head when pat np

113 7

88 0

119 13

101 5

95 1

91 4

WMling Wool} • • •J

183 1

140 18

183 7

145 14

139 9

133 18

Itel incxeaae per head

69 10

58 18

63 10

44 9

44 8

48 8

hfitaw per head Weekly .

8 m

8 0^

8 81

8 34

8 8

Wtddy hiereaM per 100 Iba. )

1 181

1 184

8 1

1 181

1 144

1 14

fOU-Cake .

7 12t

6 04

8 1

5 14

» 94

jniod consumed ,
iWeddy . .

Clover-Hay

7 0

5 184

6 144

5 94

5 5

Swedes

106 34

77 184

lis 4

88 13

88 14

78 0

/Oil-Cake .
hodooatamed 1
fcr 100 lbs. live < Qover-Haj
tof aaimal • . i

I Swedes .

5 44

4 114
71 101

5 44

5 01

68 04

5 31

4 74
73 64

4 18
4 84
67 13

5 0
4 184
70 10

4 154

4 114

69 54

/OU-Cake .
MBBed to pro-l
llM. increase of < Clover-Hay
llttof animal .|

V Swedes

291 94

297 64

853 104

888 m

864 44

863 64

961 61
3,966 18

885 7
3.836 IS

816 111
3,557 8

851 41

3,761 0

851 101
8,785 4

850 54

3.671 0

Wool per head •

6 4

5 10

9 41

8 84

6 7

7 34

Wool per 100 lbs. live weight \
i when shorn . . . j

3'T7

4*57

5*44

5*58

4-60

5*40

rOfthe4oflarg-)

St. lbs.

St lbs.

St. lbs.

St Iba.

St lbs.

r Weights
taken at -
Home•

Weights
alfewed

est and 4 ofl
smallest In- 1
crease . .'

Of the 8 of me-1
dium Increase J

Ofthe 16 killed*

Ofthe4oflarg-)
gestand 4 ofl
Bmallesl In- [
crease . . .'

IS 64
18 41

9 4
9 54

IS 64
18 84

9 44

9 4

9 14
9 81

8 54

8 64

18 54

9 5i

18 5

9 44

9 8

8 6

12 4

9 8

- -

9 24

8 7

8 34

Newgate
iBlarket.

Of the R of me- )
dinm Increase /

Ofthe 16 kiUed

12 8

9 44

- -

9 84

9 Oi

8 4

IS 3 1

9 3 I

18 8

9 24

8 71

8 3',

oft Of 4 ot largest Increase

66' 9

67*8

59*1

56*8

56*4

55*0

f Of 4 of smallest Increase

.W4

56*1

57*4

51*9

53*8

55*1

Of 8 of medium Increase

&6*8

67'4

57*8

55*4

55*7

55*3

^* lofTotallSkiUed . .

. 56-7

57*0

58*0

54*7

55*3

55*8

he cue of the Cotswolds, all the averages hi this Table are calculated frum the results of the 5 of
the 5 of smallest and the 10 of medlam increase— in all % ldUeA,^xn\«lld <A tn^i \% Y^«^, «& >x^
of all the other breeds.

32 Experiments on tlie Comparative Fattening QuaUHes

Table XIX. — continued.

•

Hants.

Sussex.

OotswokU.

Leioesten.

Nov. 1850,

Nov.lSSO,

Dee. 1851,

Dec. 1858,

Dee. 188

PARTICULARS.

Hay, 1851,

May, 1851,

April, 1858,

ApriUl858,

Airil.M

26
Weeks.

20
Weeks.

80
Weeks

r Of 4 of largest IncreaM
Proportioaof
GarcaM in Of 4 of smallest Incxease
100 lbs. of

ihe/asted Of 8 of medium Increase
live weight

.OfTotaliekiUed . .

61*9
80*0

61*8
59*3

68*9
60*4

61*6

5ro

61*4

60*6

61*2

60*8

60-8

60*6

61*4

60*1

60*5

lbs. ox.

lbs. OK.

lbs. OS.

lbs. OB.

Ibn 0

Average ( ^'* of largest Increase .

12 15i

10 H

8 11}

8 dk

7 1

Tmk^' I Of 4 of smallest Increase

11 5

8 61

8 2i

8 16^

• 1

^t^S& J0f8 of mediom Increase

12 7

10 9i

9 8^

6 8

7 3

warm . •lofTotall6kUled . .

12 41

9 12

6 IH

• 4«

8 li

_ / Of 4 of largest Increase .
Pn>portion of

loose fat Of 4 of smallest Increase
MlOO^.a^-

the fasted Of 8 of medium Increase
iceight . .

lOfTotall6killed . .

6*54
7*34
7*24

7*08
7*17
7*45

4*57

5*08
5*53

5*00
3*59
4*90

5*08
8*80
5*38

7-09

7*29

5*18

4*60

8*88

Average /Of4of largest Increase .

weight
of lung and Of 4 of smallest Increase

windpipe

P^J*^^ Of 8 of mediam Incrosse

warm. . .Of Total lekiUed . .

1 101
1 9\
1 9*

1 4*

1 81
1 6*

1 14t

1 9

2 0*

1 81
1 81
1 6

1
1
I

1 91

1 5i

I 141

1 61

Proportion of ( ®' * <^^*'»^ ^™='«^ *

0*84

0*89

1*01

0*85

1*68

clSdSg&e Of4ofsm.llestlncre..e

1*08

1*05

0*99

1*43

1*18

ioo*^S?^«Ai Of 8 of medium increase

0*98

1*08

1*19

1*08

1-OB

-^'"**^ "*'^** lof Total 16 kUled . .

0*93

1*00

1*06

1*10

1*08

•

51.

1853.

185a

*^ssj27b."^"".*rr''^}

f. d.

3 0

s. d.
3 2i

s. d.
2 10

«. d.

4 U

Average gross monev return per head 1
of tLoae sold dead (without Wool) J

40 H

82 6i

37 H

40 81

88 1

Aversge gross moner return per head \
of those sold aUve (withoaTWool). /

40 4

84 4

35 4

98 4

40 •

Averammoner letnm of tba Wool >

7 Oi

6 61

9 8

10 8

9 i

Price ofthe Wool per lb. •

1 U

1 2

I Ok

1 3

1 1

of different Breeds of Sheep. S8

ndenng the somewhat inferior quality of their mutton compared
with that of the cross-bred and Hampshire sheep.

In the second main division of the Summary Table we have

the TarioQs particulars of the consumption of food by the dif-

fafent lots of sheep. Leaving the point of the amounts of food

eoDsimied per head^ the variations in which, so far as the dry

ibods are concerned, depend on the varying original weights of

the different lots ; and looking only to the amounts consumed

jw 100 lbs. live weight of animal^ or to produce 100 lbs, of increase,

ve lee that, although the oilcake and clover-chaff were in each

OK given in proportion to the original weights of the sheep,

Jdthe result was that, taking the average throughout the entire

jMDod of the experiment, the Leicesters had less of these dry foods

iiielati(xi of their average weight than any of the other lots,

lod more particularly than the Hampshircs, Sussex Downs, and

Cotswolds. Notwithstanding this, however, the Leicesters also

*ie less in relation to their average weight of the turnips^ which

4mij were allowed ad libitum^ than any of the other breeds.

thoM less consumption of total food in relation to their weight

I7 ^ Leicesters might be in their favour, if the result were that

thej consumed also less for the production of a given amount of

increase. But the fact is seen to be, that, in relation to the

ui^rease they yielded, the Leicesters consumed quite as much

fcod as the cross-breds, and notably more than the Cotswolds.

Uicesters, cross-breds, and Cotswolds, however, all give a larger

vaoant of gross increase for a given amount of food consumed

duu\ either the Hampshires or the Sussex sheep. Such are the

^olts of the experiments as they stand on the point of the amount

^ bod required to yield a given amount of increase. But we

^Bost not forget that the trials were not all made side by side

*nd in the same season ; those with the Hampshire and Sussex

I'owns being made together in 1850-1, those of the Cot&wolds

^e in 1851-2, and those with the Leicesters and cross-breds in

«52-3. And although the quality of the respective foods was

^ all cases as nearly alike as circumstances would allow, yet the

f^^^^ stocks used were different for the three seasons. There

^ nevertheless, much of consistency in the general character and

^^tion of the actual numerical results; which are, indeed,

^Qch what we should expect, considering the generally admitted

^Unctions between the different breeds, though perhaps not

^^11 points what is currently stated of them.

p With respect to the u)ool^ it is seen that the long-wooUed

V^tswolds and Leicesters gave the greatest weight, both per

^^^*of and per 100 lbs. live weight of animal; next in order come

^^ cross-breds ; and lastly, the Hampshire and Sussex Downs*

^ order of highest amount of wool per head is —

34 Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualities

Cotswolds,
I-«eicesters,
Cross-bred ewes,
Cross-bred wethers,
Hampshires,
Sussex Downs.

Tiie order of highest amount of wool per 100 lbs, live wn^
is —

Leicesters,
Cotswolds,
Cross-bred ewes,
Cross-bred wetliers,
Sussex Downs,
Hampshires.

It is worthy of notice, that of the cross-breds, which were feo
in the same season and side by side with the Leicesten, the
ewes gave considerably more wool both per liead and per 100 lb»-
live weight than the wethers ; the female offspring, therefore^
inheriting more prominently the qualities of the male parent »
far as the fleece is concerned. Comparing together the HMflp"
shires and Sussex Downs, which were fed side by side with each
other, the Hampshires gave an average of li lb. more wool Jff
liead ; but the Sussex, on the other hand, gave nearly one-foiu4
more than the Hampshires per 100 lbs. live weight qfammal.

Looking to the question of the quantity of mutton or wag^
of carcass yielded by the different breeds thus fed only to tte
age of about fifteen or sixteen months, it is seen that the Hanp^
shires and Cotswolds averaged nearly 12^ stones (8 lbs. per stone)
of marketable meat or dead weight, equal to 24 or 25 lbs. pC
quarter ; these Cotswolds were, however, six weeks' less time on
fattening food than the Hampshires, and were nevertheless soBi^^
what too fat. The Sussex Downs and Leicesters gave only aboo*
three-fourths as much dead weight per head as the Hampshire^
and Cotswolds ; that is, little more than 9i stones each, equal t^
about 19 lbs. per quarter; the long-wooUed Leicester Bg»i^
giving an equal weight of mutton with the short- wooUed Snsie^
after six weeks' shorter time on fattening food, though probtUf^
it is true, not in point of fact six weeks younger, owing to tbi*"
earlier date of lambing. Of the cross-breds, the wethers g»^^
about 9, and the ewes about 84 stones of meat per head — equ**
respectively to about 18 and 17 lbs. per quarter.

The Hampshires, therefore, after an equal length of time oO
fattening food, were brought to about one-third more carca**'
weight per head than the Sussex slieep. The Cotswolds, ^^"
six weeks loss on fattening food than either the Hampshire or

of different Breeds of Sheep. 35

Sussex ifheepy gave an equal carcass-weight with the former and
oQe-third more than the latter. And again, the Cotswolds, with
ui equal length of time on fattening food, gave about one-third
more carcass-weight than the Leicesters, and nearly one-half
more than the cross-breds.

The next point to notice in the Summary Table is the pro-
portion of the dead or carcass-weight to live-weight — an item
which, other things being equal, may be taken as indicating the
comparative tendency to carcass growth generally and early
niaturity. The figures in the Table do not show any very great
di£rences among the six lots, but, such as they are, the result
of the comparison differs somewhat accordingly as we calculate
Ae carcass- weight in relation to the fasted or to the unfasted
life-weight. And since, when calculated on the fasted weight,
tbe result is less influenced by the incidental contents of the
ttomach, we assume that method to give the safest ground for
comparison.

It will be remembered that the Hampshire and Sussex sheep
were nearly one-third longer time on fatterung food than any of
the other lots, and this should be all in their favour as far as
ptoportion of dead weight to live is concerned. It is seen, how-
ever, that the CotstcoldSy although fed six weeks' shorter time,
S^Te a higher percentage of carcass than either the Hampshire or
Smtex Downs. Indeed the Cots wolds had more of the tend-
^Qcj to increase and fatten in carcass for the food they consumed
^^ any of the other sheep. But the quality of their mutton is
^ftainly inferior, and will command a somewhat lower price.
*^^ Leicesters gave a less proportion of deadweight than any of
^ other sheep — even than their cross with the Down — fed side
|y side, and for an equal length of time. This is not what would
*^ expected, for the current character of the Leicester, like that
^ the Cots wold, is certainly to yield carcass rather than inside
^^th. The crosses again, though fed six weeks' shorter time
^'^^^ the pure Hampshire and Sussex Down, still give an equal
J*oportion of dead weight to live.

I^he tendency to give large proportion or percentage of carcass
^^ight, is certainly generally coincident with that of laying on
!^^ on the carcass rather than inside. This character, which
^ that of early maturity y and which is favoured by the modern
*y%tem of rapid fattening, is certainly somewhat unfavourable to
^^h quality of mutton. This carcass fattening bespeaks a languid,
^ough full circulation, and less of muscular or motive activity,
^d with this less of the hardiness dependent on respiratory
?^*gour. The cross-breds, however, in these experiments, gave
^th an equal tendency to carcass growth with the pure Lei-

36 Experiments an tlie Comparative Fattening

ccsters ; and they also fetched a somewhat higher price per
of mutton, though the difference in this respect was probably I
than it would have been, had not our Leicester mutton, from the>/r
want of growing character, been more delicate than usual, anc/
our cross-bred on the other hand rather under the mark for wu/
of a little more time. Our next observations will farther illos-
trate the above points of comparisoif.

The Hampshire and Sussex Downs gave the largest proportioo
of loose, or caul and gut fat. This is consistent with the knoii
comparative less tendency of the hardier Downs to give veiy h
carcasses, and also with the known superior quality of their
mutton. It must not be forgotten, however, that in these expai-
mcnts the Downs were the longest on fattening food whidi
would favour their production of fat generally ; but this was
obviously deposited over the internal viscera rather than on the
carcass, or muscular and motive part of the body ; for whilst thej
gave the highest proportion of inside fat, they did not give a high
proportion of dead or carcass weight. The cross-breds again
gave a larger proportion of inside fat than the Cotswold, or than
the pure Leicesters, and the ewes rather more than the wethen.
Thus, in this internal character, the crosses inlierit more of the
qualities of the female parent, and the female offspring rather
more so than the male. These qualities of the crosses are quite
consistent with their admitted liardier character as compared
with the pure Leicesters, and also with the better quality of their
mutton.

The degree of development, or activity of Ixing^ is ccrtaiDljt
other things being equal, coincident with the habits of activity
or rest, and with the character for hardiness of the animal. Thoie
animals ada])ted or accustomed to more of exposure and oxerdie
should doubtless liave a greater development of lung and of re-
spiratory and circulatory activity ; and with this would go
less tendency to massive accumulation of fat on the carcass, or
motive part of the body. Activity or large development of longi
a less fat carcass, a higher quality of mutton, a greater hardinesi,
and more of inside fat, should thus go together.

Our figures relating to the proportional weight of lung in the
different cases are not so consistent with these general principles
as we should have expected, when we compare together all the
six lots of sheep. Those relating to the other points involved
we have seen are so, and those relating to the weights of lung
are indeed consistent when comparing together only certain lote
— as for instance the Hampshire and Sussex Downs — and some
of the cases of inconsistency arc perhaps not incapable of some
explanation. Thus the higher average proportional weight of

of d^erent Breeds of Sheep. 87

ng of the Cotswolds, Lcicesters, and cross-breds, than the
owns, would probably have been lessened had the former been
long on fattening food as the latter. Again, the higher pro-
»rtion of lung among the Leicesters than the cross-breds is not
lat we should expect, but the higher average among the former
obviously due to the very high amount of those of the Leicester
eep of mallest increase. This excessive proportion of lung is
naistent enough with very little tendency to increase ; and we
id indeed the largest proportion of lung among the animals of
WiBest increase^ in the case of every lot except the Cotswolds.
m^y be, however, that activity of respiratory function is not,
ider all circumstances, indicated by comparative weight of lung
aoe. A comparison of the proportional weights of the heart,
d the other internal organs or viscera of animals of different
eeds, or differently fed, would be unsuited to the objects of this
tper ; but this is a subject which it is our intention to treat of
I some other occasion, together with that of the comparative
imposition in a more chemical point of view of our domestic
Jjnals in different conditions of fatness or maturity.
Comparing then together all the six lots, the results as a
bole pretty generally confirm the usually current views as to
eir characteristic tendencies and qualities. And, in a word, it
ay be said that the greater the tendency to rapid growth, to
iTiy maturity, and to give a large proportion of gross increase to
od consumed, the fatter will be the carcass, the coarser the
atton and wool, the less the proportion of butcher's valuable
Ed, and the less the hardiness of the animal under exposure and
:eicise. Thus the Cotswolds and the new Leicesters (though
e latter have certainly not fully borne out their current cha^
cter in these experiments), if they do possess the quality of
Ting a comparatively large return of gross increase for food
nsumed, they at the same time give fatter carcasses, are less
irdy, give less valuable offal, and yield a lower price for a given
eight, both of mutton and wool, than either the Downs or their
osses.

This brings us to the consideration of the comparative money
lue of the different lots. In the concluding lines of the
%mmary Table are given the prices per stone (8 lbs.) of mutton,
e money return per head sold dead and sold alive (excluding
ool), and the return per head, and the prices per lb. of the wool,
realized in the actual sales of the experimental sheep. Since,
iwever, some of these sales were not only made in different
Eurkets from the rest, but even in different ^ears, no general
mparison of them can be made ; hence the ^^ Balance Accounts^^
liich have been given from time to time, as affording the best

38 Experiments on tlie Comparative Fattening Qualities

means the circumstances admitted, of an approximate comparisc
in a money point of view, between the lots fed side by side, cai
not be employed in any way in comparing together the result
the whole six lots.

If, however, we could arrive at any satisfactory manner <
estimating the average money value of the lambs of the n
spcctive breeds, we could then institute a pretty safe compariaoi
of the money return of the different lots ; for, on the one han^
the dry foods could be taken at one uniform rate for all, andyfli
the other, the Tables which are published of the Average Prim
of the different descriptions of mutton and wool, would enable w
to put all on the same fooling, so far as the produce of sak a
concerned.

No satisfactory comparative estimate of the average cost ofdie
respective lambs, at a given age or weight, can be made. To
say nothing of the variation in different seasons or localitiei^
according to the supply of food and other matters, the methodb
of business adopted in the rearing or procuring of stores of ft
pure breed, and of a first cross, are necessarily so different M
themselves, independently of the influence of locality on the two
modes, that any attempt to form an estimate of the avenp
comparative value of the different kinds of lambs could mf
yield a fallacious basis for any further calculations.

Perhaps the safest way of applying the results of the exp«»*
ments, to institute a comparison of the relative economy of Ai
different lots as rapid fatteners, is, then, to set aside altogether i^
question of the relative prices of the lambs, and to take ii^
account only the relative amounts of food required to yieU *
given weight of the fattened animal in the different cases, irf
the average comparative value of the mutton and wool prodooe^
That is to say, if we take the amount of food consumed by eicfc
lot to produce 100 lbs. of live weight on the one hand, and ^^
average money value of 100 lbs. live weight of each of ^
different descriptions of sheep on the other, wc have a prettj
fair means of forming an approximate comparison of the ecoiuUii]
at least of feeding, if not of the rearing of the respective lotk

Setting aside then the actual prices obtained for the differeH
descriptions of mutton and wool, we have in the following T*^
(XX.), which is compiled from BelFs Weekly Messew^ ^
January 1851, the average price atSmithfield Market, and A\XS^
a period of ten years, namely, from 1840 to 1849 indusive^ *
different descriptions of mutton per stone of 8 lbs. to sink ^
offal.

Table S

ofd^ereni Breeds of Sheep,

Table XX.

1 ,__

Prime Soath

J*rime Coar8o>

Downs.

woolled Sheep.

s. </.

«. d.

1 1840

4 11

4 6

1841

5 0

4 8

1842

4 8

4 4

1843

4 4

4 0

1844

4 8

4 3

1845

5 1

4 10

1846

4 9

4 4

1847

5 7

5 1

1848

5 3

4 10

1849

4 5

3 10

Avenge of 10 yean

4 104

4 5i

Nov, if we take our Sussex sheep as *^ prime South Downs,'*
tvLeioesters and Cotswolds as '^ prime coarse-woolled sheep/'
id our Hampshires and cross-breds as intermediate between the
tn, wc have the average relative price per stone of 8 lbs. of our

[ tt lots of mutton, as given in the following Table (XXI.). It
^h perhaps, be objected by some, that Cotswold mutton, from
ih luge size, should not be taken at quite so high a rate as the

. Uoerter ; but we are disposed to think that if brought as early
totbe batcher as the liberal system of feeding we are supposing
Implies, the former would, in ordinary markets, fetch an equal
poe per stone with the latter. However, as the data and plan
fOD which our estimates are framed will be fully before the
>>^|kr, he can easily amend our figures and carry out the calcu-
voDs on this or any other point as he may think fit.

Table XXI.

Description of Sheep.

Sussex Downs
Hampshire Downs
Cross-bred wethers
Cross-bred ewes ..

Leicesters

Cotswolds

Average Price per

Stone of 8 lbs. to

sink the offal.

«. d.

4
4
4
4
4
4

lOJ
8
8
8

54
H

^ the following Table (XXII.) we have computed from the

It *v lists given in * The Econoinist ' the average prices per

* ®^ different descriptions of wool (in fleeces), taken from the

40 Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualiiies

entries of nearly every week, over a period of nearly five yews,
namely, 1850 to 1854 inclusive : —

'1^

rABLK XXII.

Year*.

South Down
Ilogs.

South Jio^-n n.if hnwi Leknter
Wethers. | "*«^ Wcthea

1850
1851
1852
1853
1854

«. d.

1 li

1 2
1 31

1 si

1 2j

8. d.

0 lOf

0 11^

1 0)

1 3}
1 11

«. d. ' 8, I

1 u 0 4

1 2i 0 11
1 3| 0 111
1 4| . 14
1 if 11

Average of 5 years . .

1 2f

1 1

I 2) 1 <4

We have here the average price per lb. over a period of netrlj
five years of the wool, both of the hoggets and of the ewes and
wethers, of the South Downs, that of the former being nearly id.
more than that of the latter. Of the Leicesters, we have the
price of the wool of the ewes and wethers only. There wooU
certainly, however, be on the average a less difference than ii
per lb. between the price of the hogget and of the ewe ind
wether wool, in the «ase of the long-wooUed sheep. If, there*
fore, we raise the average price of Is. O^ef., as given in the table
for Leicester ewe and wether wool, to Is. Id. for that of Leicofcr
hoggets, this will probably give a fair average price, compM'
with that of the other descriptions. We have been unabkto
find any collateral published price for Cotswold hogget wool ; bit
we suppose that we may assume it the same as for the Leioefttf
for our present purpose.

Upon tliese data, then, we take the average relative prices per
lb. of the wool of our six descriptions of experimental sheep^ ai
given in the following Table (XXIII.) ; but subject, of oonne^
as before, to the emendation of the reader, if his judgment do
not agree with our own.

Table XXIII.

DeacripUoa of ^eep.

Sussex Downs
Hampshire Downs
Cross-hn'd wethers
Cross-bred ewes . .

Leicesters

Cotswolds

Avenue

Price of Wool

per lb.

of different Breeds of Sheep. 41

In the next table, the foregoing data of the average prices of
ir saleable produce — mutton and wool — are applied to form
•me estimate of the probable comparative economy of the dif-
rent lots of sheep as early fatteners, and when fed under cover.
I this Table (XXIV.) we have — for each description of sheep, —

The foods consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase in live-
eight

The extra food beyond Cotswolds (which consumed the least),
osumed to produce 100 lbs. live-weight

Tlie quantities of marketable produce — mutton and wool —
Attained in 100 lbs. of the unfasted live-toeight with shorn wool
ided.

The money-return, at average rates^ of the mutton and wool in
X)lbs. live-weight.

Difference of money-return over or under that of Cotswolds for
X)lbs. live-weight.

Cost oi extra food consumed beyond Cotswolds to produce 100 lbs.
re-weight : the oilcake reckoned at Irf. per lb. = 9/. per ton ;
le clover-chaff at ^d, per lb. = to 4/. 10*. per ton ; and the
nredes at id. per cwt., consumed on the farm, = 65. %d, per
n.

And, lastly, the difference or excess of extra cost of food over
oney-return for 100 lbs. live- weight, com jtared with Cotswolds.

According to the figures in this Table (XXIV.), in no case does
le average extra price of the mutton and wool of the more choice
^ciiptions of sheep, compensate for the cost of the extra food
hich has been consumed to produce them. It may be objected

our exact figures, that all the experiments were not made side
f side, and during the same period, and that therefore both
fference of season and some variation in the quality of the
K>ts may, perhaps, in a degree affect the results ; nor, perhaps,

the method of estimate adopted free from all objection. It is,
>wever, the safest we can adopt ; and, we believe, that the
isults give a fair indication, at least of the direction of the com-
irative economy of the different lots, considered as early fat-
aers, and fed under cover.

It is quite consistent with the physiological distinctions which
ust characterise animals adapted to more of exposure and exer-
se, that they should — as in the experiments they were found

do — consume more food to produce a given weight of in-
ease than the opposite description of animal. The experi-
ental results should therefore, as we have said, be taken as cer-
inly in the right direction^ whether or not they exactly repre-
nt quantitatively the relative fattening qualities under the
stem adopted, of the different lots. And, again, this extra
od required for a given amount of increase, and the greater

42 Experiments on the Comparative FattemiiQ Qtudittet

III

J* « s ; y

liiHifci

^. ffSS'S'

iliHlp

._ O o o -

+ 11 + 1

■s

■i^ « ^ s ■ss

,-, s . « J *

III

liffl ^ a ^ n 01

go - o . . ,
^9 n ■* « « «

2=b

|3 S S S S S

Ail

41111 ^

i
i

ij'j g f i :

If i 5 2 * ,

ifllllf

^fffll

€11111

f ~

t
5

lllhl

indifferent Breeds of Sheep. 48

ncM or power of resistance to cold from without, bespeak
of motive or muscular activity, and a larger respiratory
iditure, and consequently greater resource of internal tem-
are. It is in this way that we pay for the increased quality
I meat, induced by a greater circulatory activity of the fluids
3 body, and a slower and less massive deposition of fat.
s must not, however, place the whole of the extra food
imed to the cost of the mutton and wool ; for most of its
len will be recovered in the manure, the value of which
herefore be increased in a certain degree in proportion to
ctra food consumed. Then, again, a due consideration of
ivaluable working qualities, and the more choice mutton of
tardier kinds of sheep, which always give them the pre-
ce over the earlier fattening long-woolled breeds in certain
ities, with certain descriptions of farming, and in certain
ets, will at once show that any conclusions from the com-
on of cost, brought out in these experiments with very liberal
Qg and protection from the weather, must be applied with
caution, in seeking to form an estimate of the comparative
ties of the different breeds under widely different cir-
tances.

conclusion : it must be admitted, that, as is already well
Q, the Downs and their crosses are better adapted to ex-
e and activity than the long-woolled sheep. It would

however, that when liberally fed, and protected from in-
nt weather, the long-wools, especially the Cotswolds, will
a larger amount of gross increase for a given amount of
x)nsumed than the Downs or crosses. The average prices
»wn, and also of cross-bred mutton and wool, are, however,
r than for those of the long wools ; but not sufficiently so
npensate for the cost of the extra food consumed. It would
r, therefore, that when equally fitted to climate, locality,
jTstem of farming adopted, both as to their rearing and fat-
r qualities, and when on the other hand what may be termed
:y or over-average price for Down mutton is not attainable,
animals yielding most mutton and wool for a given quantity
d, will have an advantage in supplying the demand of the
8 of the population. The cross-breds, however, seem to
In several respects very valuable intermediate qualities be-

the hardy Downs and the more rapidly fattening long-
; though it must not be forgotten that these advantages of
oss-breds cannot be maintained unless the pure breeds from
I they arc derived are duly cultivated and kept up. And it
*tunate that so undoubted is the superiority of the pure

44 Experiments on the Comparative Fattening Qualitiei

breeds, under certain circumstances and in certain localities, th^^
we need have no fear of the deterioration of our crosses on th^:=3
score.

In other words, it results that although there is an evidei
relation between the amount of food required to produce a givi
quantity of mutton, and the quality or value of the mutton pr«>
duced, yet the variations in the rate of increase to food consum^w^
on the one hand, and in money value on the other, are not o/
themselves sufficient to afford any decisive conclusion as to tbe
comparative economy of the different breeds founded merdg m
the productiveness of the food under certain circumstances of fct-
tenmg. Perhaps the result of the comparison of the several breedi
in this one respect is as satisfactorily brought out in these exp^
riments as we can hope it will be experimentally at all. KrA
it would seem that the farmer must, after all, be guided in bif
choice mainly by the many practical and business consideratioaf
which it is not within the province of such investigations ii
those we have recorded directly to illustrate.

So much, then, for the comparative fattening qualities of the
several breeds, when protected from the weather and fed rapidlj
for the market upon a liberal supply of good food. We have ten
that although the extraordinary rates of increase frequently spoken
of have not been met with (nor were they expected) in theic
somewhat extensive and carefully conducted experiments, yet it
is strikingly brought out that under the modem system ol lapv
fattening with a liberal supply of purchased or saleable food, &
weight of mutton can be produced in fifteen to eighteen mooAi)
which not long since generally required at least twice that period.
And if the quality of the rapidly-fed mutton is not quite eqoal
in the judgment of the rich and connoisseur, there can still beoo
doubt which course must be adopted in the long run in the
production of food for a large and increasing population and
demand.

Although, however, we have already carried our Report of tbe
progress of our comparative experiments with the different brecdi
only up to the point at which good marketable mutton may ^
produced, yet, as frequently alluded to in our papers, a few of
each of these lots of sheep were fed for some six months more;
'and the results of these extra or somewhat over-fattened sheep
must form the subject of a supplementary and separate Report

The following is a short enumeration of useful and practical
facts relating to sheep-feeding, which our experiments have
brought out : —

of different Breeds of Sheep. 45

^^''tsumption of Food : —

Sbeep of different breeds consume quantities of food in pro-
^^on to their respective weights when at an equal age, stage
^* feeding, &c. ; that is to say, three sheep weighing ICK) Ite.
I^ch will consume the same quantity of food as two sheep of
150 lbs. each.

Sheep on good fattening food — suck as cake or com, with
^oaff and roots — will consume weekly about 4| lbs. of cake,
4f lbs. hay, and about 70 lbs. of roots, for every 100 lbs. of their
live-weight

Wlien fed as above, they will consume every week about one-
•erenth of their own weight of the dry substance of food ; that is,
iAer deducting the moisture it contains.

Kate of Increase : —

Sheep well fed and under cover will increase about two per
:ent. per week upon their weight ; that is to say, 100 lbs. live-
ireight will increase from 1| lb. to 2 lbs. per week.

To increase 100 lbs. in live weight, sheep will consume about
2i cwts. of cake or com, 2^ cwts. of hay-chaff, and lit to 1| tons
>f roots.

The increase of a fattening sheep is at the rate of about 1 lb.
live-weight to 8 lbs. or 9 lbs. of the dry substance of the food
consumed.

Live and Dead Weights^ Sfc. : —

Hoggets or tegs (under twelvemonths old), and in a lean or
store condition, will contain about one half of their weight car-
cass, and about one half offal.

Shorn sheep, su£Sciently fat for the market, will contain about
56 lbs. of carcass in every 100 lbs. of the unfasted live-weight.

Sheep in an ordinary state of fatness yield from 7 lbs. to 14 lbs.
of offal or loose fat per head, according to breed and size ; the
long-wools giving the least, and the Downs the most.

Value oflncrease^ ^c. ; —

The value of the increase of fattening sheep is less than the
cost of the food consumed to produce it ; the difference is to be '
charged to the manure.

The value of the total offal is from As. to 6*. per head, inde-
pendently of the wool.

LONDON :

Printed by W. Clowcs and SoKt, Stamford Strtet,

and Charing Croai.

THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

J. B. LAWES, F.E.8., RO.S.

BKINO A PATER READ AT THE THIBTEEKTH OBDIKABY MEETIKO OF THE SOCIETY OP ABT8

WEDNESDAY, MABCH 7, IdU.

LONDON:

rBINTED BY W. TROUNCB, 9, CURSITOR STREET, CHANCERY LANE.

1855.

BB-PBINTED BY DUNN & CHIDGEY, 155 A 157, KU^GSLAND ROAD, K.

1838.

:11

^ THE SEWAGE OF LONDON,

BY J. B. LAWES, F.R.S., F.C.S.

hoever undertakes to bring forward plans for the economical dis-
of the sewage of the metropolis, is at once met by the difficulty
ig from the enormous bulk of the material with which he has to
It is estimated, that between one and two hundred milHon tons
Did pass through the sewers annually ; and it is said, that solid
er amounting to nearly 200,000 tons, is suspended or dissolved in
liquid. Those who advocate the employment of the sewage by
^lon, must therefore seek for an extensive tract of land at no
: distance from London on which to deposit this fluid ; whilst
i who propose to separate from it a sohd manure, must produce a
iance of sufficient productive value to bear the cost of carriage to
arts of Great Britain. Of late years much money has been use-
r expended in patents and inventions for converting the sewage
a portable manure, which might have been saved by a better
vmge of the true principles of manuring, and the wants of agri-
ire. The authors of these inventions, considering that farmers
nlling to pay £10 or £12 per ton for foreign guano, are surprised
Dd that tneir British substitute is in no demand at one quarter
price ; and they are inclined to tax the farmer with ignorance in
nanagement of his business, and with prejudice in favour of a
gn commodity. It may safely be asserted, that agriculturists not
have no prejudice in favour of foreign manures, but that they
d be only too glad to find some substitute which they could em-
with advantage. They are, however, fast learning by experience,
a low-priced manure is not necessarily a cheap one. The question
are beginning to ask, is — not what is the price per ton^ of this or
Qianure ? But, in what manure can I most cheaply bring upon
land certain constituents which I require ? The inability to
3r this question satisfactorily has hitherto brought all the pro-
's of sewage manure to a stand-still. Those who in future propose
U in this manner with sewage, should consider well this question.
Uccess or failure of their inventions will infallibly depend upon
iswer they can give.

4 ON THE 8EWAGE OF LONDON.

It should never be forgotten that it is the cost of carriage whic^
regulates in a great measure the distribution of manures, and assign
to each a limit of area, beyond which it cannot profitably be emploTe^
No one doubtfi the value of stable manure ; yet its use is confined —
a range which does not exceed a few shillings per ton for carriage
and a farmer who would have to cart it beyond this range would
accept it as a gift ; and it is for a similar reason, that, even sappoei
the manufacture of a solid manure from the sewage of a small to'
could be carried on with profit, it might still be quite impracticable
applied to London. The local demand in the immediate neighbon^
hood of a small town, might, perhaps, absorb the whole supply, whil«
the vast produce of the London sewage could only be disposed of bj ;
general sale all over the country.

The term manure includes a great variety of substances, from tlie
disgusting mass of corruption, the very idea of which is ahnos^
sickening, to the purest and most delicate crystaUised salts. It is sot
one of the least of the many beautiful and economical airangemeDte
which we see around us whereby the Almighty has endowed the same
particles of matter with the property of entering into a variety of fomw,
at one time the most offensive, and at another the most attractive. lo
this ever changing circle, nothing is without its value, nothing is lost.
Whilst, therefore, all matters in one sense waste and refuse, have thtar
absolute value when considered in a scientific point of view, they have
at the same time another and an independent value as articles of
commerce ; and to assign to each its proper money equivalent is >
most important office of scientific and economic agricnltare.

The crops grown by the farmer are found to be composed (rf »
number of dif^rent elements ; and if the soil were only a medimn of
support to the roots of the plants, and neither it nor tne atmospbeR
furnished any of these elements, the art of manuring would be sim]^
enough ; it would be confined to replacing the elements contained in
the crop exactly in the proportion in which they were removed from
the lana. It happens, nowever, that a certain portion of each of the
elements which the plants produced contain, are furnished either ^
the normal soil or by the atmosphere, but some of them not jo
sufficient quantity for a^cultural purposes. True economy in
manuring consists, then, m adding those substances to the land of
which the supplies of the soil and atmosphere will be deficient In
order to ascertain experimentally which of the various constituents of
our agricultural plants it is most important to supply by manures, it i>
necessary to grow each particular crop for a series of yean with
different manurial mixtures, in some cases supplying the varioos con-
stituents separately, and in others ^ith two or more of them combined
together. jBy following this course, and carefully weighing the pro-
duce obtained, a knowledge is by degrees acquired of the relative .
value and importance in a manure of the- different ingredients. In

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

lUu^tration of the usefulness of this kind of enquiry, I propose to

^^^^T you to a few experiments of the sort in question, which have

^^^^^3 conducted by myself on the wheat crop. The results I have

?|*^cted for this purpose, are those of the seasons 1844 and 1854.

fj^tii^een these periods there is an interval of nine years, during which

^^ same kind of experiments have been going on upon the same plots

^* land ; but as these intermediate results are all m the same direction

^ tihoee of last year, and I do not wish to inflict upon you more of

^^tieil than is necessary to explain my subject, I shall omit all reference

^^ them now.

Table I.

^^^eHofifrom Experiments in which Wheat has been ffrown ujwn the same

Land for 11 years in sneression.

Mannrefl.

Bushels of

Dressed Com

per Acre.

Straw

per Acre

inlbfli

1844.

1864.

1844.

1854.

2
7

8
10
16

14 toxiB farm-yard manure every year ...
Minerals in 1844, MineralB and Ammonia )

amM XOw**** ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •■• ■••!

ditto ditto ditto ditto
ditto Ammonia only in 1854
Minerala with 14 lbs. Ammonia, in 1844, |
with 180 lbs. in 1854 /

22
16f

16i
16f

21i

41
45^

47i
34i

1476

1172

1160
1112

1480

4450

5603

6185
8597

6635

• Total Com.

If you will turn to Table I. vou will see that Nos. 7 and 8, when
in 1844 they were manured with mineral substances only (alkalies and
phosphate of lime), they produced between 16 and 17 bushels of
wheat per acre. In 1854, with the employment of similar minerals
with siQts of ammonia al£K), the produce of com is nearly three-fold,
namely, in one case 45 bushels, and in the other 47. There is more-
over, about five times as much straw as in the former season.

The plot No. 10, which yielded nearly 17 bushels of com in 1844
with mmeral manures, produced twice as much grain in 1854, and
about three-times as much straw. The remarkable fact connected
with this experiment No. 10 is, that since the use of minerals on that
plot in 1844, ten successive crops of wheat have been taken from the
land, by the aid of salts of ammonia alone. Thus, during this period,
a gross produce of about 20 tons has been obtained by no other ad-
dition tnan about 800 lbs. of ammonia.

Tlie plot No. 16, you will see, produced in 1844 twenty-one bushels
of wheat, that is 4 or 5 bushels more than the plots with mineral

6 ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

manures alone, it having received in addition to minerals the sm^
amomit of 14lb8 of ammonia. In fact, this was one of the few plc>
manured with ammonia at all in that year. In 1854, this plot 16 h^
received besides minerals, ISOlbs. of ammonia to the acre. Thig
the highest proportion of ammonia that has ever been used in tV
course of these experiments, and ^^th the favourable season of 18S
it also yielded tlie largest crop — namely, 50 bushels of com, ai*
6,03511)8., or nearly 8 tons of straw.

Plot No. 2 has been manured every season for the last eleven yeai
at the nite of 14 tons farm-yard manure per acre — amounting in all t
154 tons. The produce on this plot is increased from 22 bushebi
1844, to 41 bushels in 1854; but even this latter amount is mnc
below that yielded by the plots 7, 8, and 16. This experiment aflfoid
a striking illustration of the fact that bulk of manure does not om]
stitute value. Thus, in the 154 tons of farm-yard manure, there hi
l)een placed upon the land a larger amomit of all the ultimate oof
stituents of corn and straw than the crops removed contained. 0
the other hand, if we were to apply the same sort of calculation I
the crops grown by means of minerals and anunonia, or ammonia aloa
we should find that a very few per cent, of the produce had bee
actually supplied in the majiure. In the case of No. 10, in fik
where ammonia salts alone have been used for many years, not ma
than 1\ per cent, of the increased produce was really derived from C
manure which has yielded it.

In regard to these experiments as a whole, when I tell youth
with the most favourable combinations of minerals, and under tJ
most favourable circumstances of the season of 1854, not more tha
from 23 to 24 bushels of wheat was in any case obtained, it will fc
obvious to you that the whole of the difference between these amonntt
and 45, 47, and even 50 bushels, aa in the cases given in the tables
must l)e entirely attributable to the ammonia which was emplojed.
And I may add, that as far as my experience goes, there is no substice
known which can be substituted for ammonia or some other compoiml
of nitrogen with like effects.

Farm-yard manure is estimated to contain about a ^ per cent i
this ammonia ; or about eleven lbs. in a ton. It woula therefore le*
(juire about 17 tons of farm-yard manure to supply to the land tbe
amomit of ammonia used in the experiment No. 16. Now my fan
is situated 25 miles from London, and being inconveniently sitnitd
for conveyance by railway or canal, the cost of carriage from LondoB
upon one ton of manure is 15 shillings. Therefore, if I were to brini
my 180lb8. of ammonia from London in the form of dnn^, flu
carriage alone would amount to £12 15s. Od. I could obtam Am
same amount of ammonia in ^ a ton of guano, or in 7 cwt. of snlnlMili
of ammonia, at the cost of one-half of the carriage alone of the aomg
This example clearly shows, that it would be cheaper for me to gin

ON THE SEWAGE OP LONDON. 7

lO per ton for guano, or £14 per ton for sulphate of ammonia, than
tiave the dung as a gift. In the case of the guano and the salts of
ixnonia, pounds weight only of manure are brought upon the farm to
oduce tons of growth ; in the other you bring tons to produce
^inds. If time permitted, I could easily show, that with certain
edifications the results obtained in the experimental growth of other
^^^eal crops are in the main similar to those on wheat. And from
-h data, it is not difficult to decide the actual and relative values in
;>i"ac:tical point of view, of the chief elements of manui-es. It will
Koe to say, however, that whilst I consider ammonia is by far the
^ti important and valuable constituent in an artificial manure, phos-
^ric acid is certainly the second in this respect. All my experiments
<i to this conclusion ; and it is, moreover, fully confirmed ])y the
^I>osition of all those manures in the market which have the most
-■^ixded sale, and which are the most highly prized by the fanner.
JJ* x\o manure is entirely made up of ammonia and phosphoric acid,
^ the nature of the remaining ingredients has also to be considered
^^^ing a value upon the compound. It is, however, not necessary to
^'^11 upon this point beyond saying, that when the chemical com-
■^^tiion of any manure is known, there is no difficulty whatever in
^^tig the price at which it will eventually sell compared with other
^^•Hures. And this would apply more particularly to any manure
^^^^infactured from sewage, as the quantity alone would bring it into
^^^trpetition with those already in the market.

Having now pointed out what constitutes value in manure, I will
^^xt direct attention to the composition of sewage. It will readily be
^^itted, that leaving out of the question the enormous bulk of water,
^he chief source of its valuable constituents must be the excrements of
the population. There is indeed no means of estimating with any de-
gree of accuracy the amount and value of the other matters. They
are, however, decreasing every year ; a necessary result of the increasing
cleanhness of the metropolis, and of the more rigid sanitary measures
which are being enforced. In fact, the chief additional matters that
could be permanently calculated upon, are those which are derived
from the grinding down and washings of the streets ; and however
useful these may be, they would certainly not be worth much carriage
in a portable manure ; nor would they materially enhance its value.

Assuming, then, as we may do for all practical purposes, that the
great bulk of the excrements of horses, cows, &c., in the metropolis,
will not find its way into the sewers — that the refuse of manufactures
valuable as manure which will do so, will be comparatively limited —
and that the matters abraded from the streets with their small ad-
mixture of the excrements of horses and other animals, will also be of
comparatively little value — we recur to Human Exaremenh as the main
items to be taken into calculation.

The questions arise, then, upon what data can we fairly estimate the

8 OX THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

amouut, and the chemical composition, of the excrements uf thetoC^d*!
popalation of London ? In what condition of solidity or sohfaili^J'
will these constituents be fonnd, and through what bulk of sem^^
will they be distributed ? What would be the actual value of the
constituents if separated from their admixture with water? And
finally, what are the most promising means of turning these con-
stituents to economical account, in the state of solution and dilntioM
in which we find them ?

It might, perhaps, appear at first sight, that the most feasible way
of estimating what constituents enter the sewers, would be to analyse
the sewer water itself ; but when we come to consider the very small
average proportion which the valuable ingredients bear to the bulk of
the water, and also the necessary irregularity of their admixture with
it at different times and places, this is found to be by no means the
vixsv.. It must, in fact, be a synthetic, rather than an analytic method,
bv which we must determine the constitiients of Human Bxcrement<i
which can be calculated ujwn in the sewer water.

A perfect knowledge of the average amount of solid and liquid ex-
crements voided per diem, or per annum, by each indi\'idual or a large
population — and of the composition of these excrements — ^would suffice
lo this end ; and there does, in point of fact, exist much more of re-
corded information bearing upon this subject, than would perhaps be
supposed. Tliis evidence is collected in Table IV., to which I shall
refer ngain further on. Since, however, we know that the con-
stituents of the food taken into the animal body, all reappear, either in
the increase of the lx)dy itself, in the solid and liquid excrements, or
in the exhalations by the lungs and skin, it would obviously he a veir
important confirmation of any evidence as to the composition of one
of these products of the food, namely, the excrements, if we found that
the estimates arrived at by the direct analysis of them, were congiswnt
with those of the amounts of the constituents consumed in the food,
taken in connection with the quantities devoted to the growth of the
l)ody, to the respiration, perspiration, &c. It must be confessed, tbat
there is still much t(» leani in reference to these points ; but, at the sai^e
time, it must be admitted, that the recorded information which wc do
jKJSsess is not only considerable, but very much confirmatory of '^
<lirect results obtained as to the amount and composition of the ^^'
criMiients, and it is, therefore, worthy of some consideration i^ *
discussion of this question. It is, then, with the mixed purpos^^
bringing together much useful information as to the statistics of f^
— a subject of itself of the highest imix)rtance — at the Siime tim^ ^^
affording security to the evidence to Ik* adduced as to the avcra?^
wmijK^sition of the excrements of a large population, and, further,/^
supplying a useful collection of material for the study of the physi^^^
and physic jlogist, that the tables which now follow have been arran^^'

In Table II. are given estimates of the amounts of carlwn aiifl *'

T THE BEWAOE OF LONDON.

vmunudptr dmj in the food, of individuals of different classes,

sexes.

Je III. are registered the amonnte of carbon expired daily by

, also by persons of different ages and sexes.

1 Table iV., in like manner are given the r^atered daily

it solid and li^nid excremente voided by different persons,

as ^ as practicable, the amount of the valuable constitnents

in those excrements.

Table II.

• atid Nitrogem rmuwiuid in Food in 34 kmiTt. JBttimated/rom Dittarift
or by direct atuilytit offiiHt.
HALES.
(Chiefly Males, not exceedino 15 tkasb).

Qreoiiwlch Bofpltal

[■chitali.<!5tBtiiybm(

* ■nil apmrdiij
lsMllt« t man.

ding I month"
piembulcpil ..

! nuleH noi eiccellnR 19 yiars (

ON THE SEWAGE OP LOWDON.

TABLE II. (CONTINUED)— Ob».« of Carbon and /fitragen eeiuuaud i« fW" » *"~
Eitimate^ from Dietariei, irr bg direct Arutl^ti* of Hvi.

(MALES <,

VEK 16 Years— VARIOUS Clabsbb.

Csscs. Agus. 40.

AutborliyotUxallty.

By «Lum
t-stinuled.

Hchi'mc for victual Hug TSavy
Ucncrsl Kb»I Dltury
SrUots. na Troop TniusportB
Snilot8,dnMnriiiBboa<adverice .-

■ 'i~S.-"'.'!'"-^"-\

,. (reifiNiatdipi .. -

FnVry

L.V.«aiOilbert

ditto

PttytUr
ditto

nil

llri»

irti

<rll

11*

Til

M f U

a-»i

•"

*•

Sirfdlfr*, Englirt, abraml. peace 1

jrieia opciBtiODi
:: cmbortSl ..

: S:2 :: :: ::

Dutch, iu IBflOD .

„ lowiir .. ..
I'fMlonc™"" .." "";""°"

Pl»ytair
ditto

Grilinwich

Lnwts & (ILlbon
ditto

rinrfiTr

ditto

ditto
I.S1SW 4 Gilbert

IB*
1»4I

twt
ir«

Miauot*.ldlefii«n.lpcn

uontrj

11-..

.;o

1«

niiliuiiT. fuU, under M)
dn)-. ..)

:: CterdiSn, wltTubHur""

Swutmuni

Lkwo* Gilbert

dftu.

11-J7

UeBU of i*HontTB with 1

,«.

e-m

AdDlt l.unailo

H„,..

Dr. B. A. amlili

liH

M. BsiTBl.BgeiUjPBi^minnncr .,

lUn.'6» yarn, spring "'""'' ['.
Dr. DHWn

aimi

Bttrral
ditto
ditto

ill

irfi

Ml
Ml
11

Moan ot indlvidunl npe

..ut. ..

u-H

0!r THE 8KWA&E OF LOKDON.

— (OOSTIsdkd). — Ouncn «/ Carbon and A'itrogen contvaied in food ii

Itimaled/rim Dittarirt, or Sy dirfi-t Analgtit of Food. iMala arei

16 t/eari — rariom claun.)

tt.iga.i-!.

AothoHly Dt Loddllj.

lflS"<3

NW.«

Po.

St. Albiao
BCiirorJ
Pi!ni broke

r L.W Co'ium.ssion
Plajf-ir

Laweit Gilbert
PIsflRir

4'89

cu of »ilull m«lM Id i

ort

B.i

u.«

s-ac

an net

Or»iiwlch

Lnw» « Gilbert

(i-tl

ijfl

tu t lulimal«ln-

n™

»ni.K

a-so

0-43

™

tinolI*i.«»,Sdaj»-

eiOMdlng 1 uioDth

tirj, under M .toji.

r«tui»l iflel

oTvr M dart,

rertuoHl diet

Cork
LlebiM

jllili

S-80

»•«

Ml
6-M

tttt

(Ml

4T7

4-n
4-n

am of adult uude pri»

^r.

without labour .

«^

«-u

47.

i',r

?:■

I of bolb Kl», IWl

ditto

140

diHo

a-M

017

sDDlFciiulPi under

...

12 ON THE SEWAQE OF LOHSON.

TABhKlt—'^i}oS'iiSTJEa)—Oiiiiee>nfa>rho*a»dlfitTvgeneMtMimadinFotiiMUiMrt
Eitimated/rom IHetarUt, or by direct AiuUytit tf Ft»>^

Cues, Ages, Ac.

Aulboril.v c.r LocslUy

By wbom
esllnisCcl.

Women wiih troopi etulmrksd . .

—

Barral
l,awps4Gi1b»n

lO-M

WorKhODSi-. Mhcmc tor

Botrord
PbiyfBir

I«we<AO0bcrt
ria.rfBtr

*It

1'71

Uein of Womea m nnrK

bou«.

7-4J

««

Primmra, bird labour, 1 to 1 mon, )
DO labour, l Co 4 mootba
hanl lDbour,lto4raon.)
nu labour, t monlbF an.l

opwnnis )

har.1 labour, D»er 4 mon.

E?"<Si^T"'l"iu tb

dlito
dlno

dilto

Me-not Women in prUo

T-«

(rtS

(-7!

FajiILIIK. *C.-ltlIED AOEa AKD

FMhlonablc Painllj-'ln Town, S
malfl adulta, « (emniB ulnlcs and

ftuhlonablB Fiimllj'rn Town, 'i
malu adulii, e Icmali- idulu. B

maid and fcmalp iidulia. 114 ..
rtmUy at QWaxa, S a.lults, 4

Porwr
LU^blg

Lawea & GUbert
ititto

8-lJ
»'8B

II)
Its
yU

111

Monnot l^roinra. Ac-Miicdagpsanrt wiPi

».

Menn or FfDialFS under 10 yean (^ caw)

SS!

S!!

The difference betweeu the amounts of certain conatitQeDts ca-
snmed in the food, and the sum of those of them given off l(J (•*
respiration, and in the solid and liquid excrements, shonld, of oonrH-
represent that which goes to the increase of the body, and to tbe in-
determinate exhalations.

ON THE SEWAGE OP LONDON. 13

It might have been well, in a more extended treatment of the
>ject, to have traced other oonstitnents of the food than merely the
'Don or the nitrogen. Bnt the reason that these two are selected
of the most importance is, that the former, namely, the carbon, is one

the most characteristic and most easily traced of the constituents,
!^h of the food and of the products of respiration, and thus the
te relating to it in these afford the best check upon the amount
^ermined in the excrements. The nitrogen, on the other hand, is
loubtedlj the most important inanurUil constituent in the excre-
ntB, and it is certainly the one which will measure — though not

the exclusion of other matters — their economical value. Our
orded results respecting the probable amounts of the nitrogen which
! exhaled bj the respiration and perspiration, and therefore lost to
; manure, are by no means so satisfactory as could be wished ; but
;h is the importance of this (j^uestion — one which most intimately
ects the economy of the feeding of stock — ^that it is, perhaps the
»re desirable to sift such evidence as we do possess respecting it,
1, thereby, at any rate indicate a useful path for future inquiry,
lis subject, so far as the animals of the farm are concemed, has
in more laboriously investigated at Rothamsted, than perhaps any
ler, though, owing to the practical difSculties involved in it, with-
b that success which had been hoped for.

Bnt to return to the question of what is our evidence respecting
I consumption, and the appropriation, of the constituents of the
)d of a human population of mixed sexes and ages — and what is
3 probable proportion of the nitrogen of the food which fmds its
y mto the sewers ?

In Table II., as has been stated, are given the estimates of the
Lounts of carbon and of nitrogen consumed in food in 24 hours, in

different cases, which are again arranged in 15 classes, according
sex, age, activity of mode of life, and other circumstances. Most

these estimates have been made by calculating the known average
LOunts of carbon and nitrogen in the articles composing the dietaxy

each particular case ; the particulars of the dietaries themselves
ving been obtained some years ago with a special view to this
estion of sewage. Some of the estimates in the table have, bow-
er, kindly been provided by Dr. Lyon Playfair ; whilst a few of
am, as will be seen by reference to the colmnns of "authority,"
ve been made by other individuals ; and generally in these latter
aes, the food actually consumed within a given time, has been
ighed, and its constituents determined, in some instances by
iimation, and in others by direct analysis.

It cannot of course be pretended, that the classes of individuals
lose dietaries constitute the main bulk of those in the table,
present, so far as exact form of food or cookery is concerned, all
e various grades of society in the metropolis. But it may safely be

U ON THE SEWAGE OP LONDON.

assumed that, provided the sex, age, constitution, and habits of life
as to air and exercise, are the same, the amounts of the important
vlHmafe comtituents of food will not materially differ. It woald
seem, that the main diflFerence in this particular respect, will be, that
the more luxurious the quality of the food, the more concentrated
will be the supply of carbon and of nitrogen in a given weight of the
dry substance of the food, and the larger will be the proportion of
hydrogen and the less of oxygen in that dry substance.

With regard to the numerical indications of this table of dietaries,
independently of their connection with those on respiration and of
excrements, it may be noticed that the average relation of the*
nitrogen to the carl)on of the food, is 5^ of the former to 100 of the
latter.

In applying the results of this table to elucidate our main question,
namely, the composition of the excrements of the population of
liondon — ^the latter is taken at 2^ millions ; and tms number is
supposed to comprise males and females of various ages in the pro-
portions given in the last census. It has next been assumed, that all
males under 15 years consume the amounts of carbon and nitrogen
given in the dietary table for males under that age, in schoote, *^
pubHc establishments of bojrs, in prisons, in workhouses, &c., and i**
any cases of individual experiment. The various classes of malc^
oi'er 1 5 in the metropolis are supposed to be represented, so far as tb^
carbon and nitrogen they consume is concerned, by the average ^^
sailors, of soldiers, and pensioners, of prisoners with labour^ ^
prisoners without labour, of men in workhouses, in infirmaries, .**
well as of certain individual cases of direct experiment. And ag*^'^'
the average given in the table of children in workhouses under ^
yt^ars, and of girls in various asylums and public establishments, ^?^
is applied to the female inhabitants under 15 years. That, on y^
other hand, given of women in workhouses, in prisons with and vd^\
out labour, with soldiers embarked, and of a case of indi\i^*^*
exjKjriment, is supposed to apply to the adult female populate ^^;
There are also given, the calculated dietaries of several families ^^^
other establishments, of mixed ages and sexes, of different ^rade^ /
society, the results of which fully confirm the indications of tho»^ ^
the other classes, and at the same time justify the appropriation^ ^'
our present purpose, of the figures given for the various ckraes in. ^^^
manner above-mentioned. The average^ thus taken, of the amoci.^*J*
of carbon and nitrogen consumed per head per d^y for each of ^'^
divisions as to sex and age, is multiplied by the numoer of individi^^
of each such division, and the figures thus obtained for the se^K^e^
divisions being added together, we obtain, of course, the amouati' ^'
carbon and of nitrogen consumed by the total population in one dtfj**
and from this is easily ascertained the annud consumption.

Before leaving the question of the amount of the constituents oqd-

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

in food^ it may be well to notice a point of some national
1; and importance, which the calculation of the various dietaries
ilp to elucidate, namely, the probable average consumption of
by each individual of the population. This has been variously
«ed at from six to eight oushels per head per annum. The
ts of bread, flour, &c., r^stered in the dietaries, which have
ilculated, 1^ to the conclusion that 6^ to 6| bushels is about
irage amount so consumed. Another point illustrated by the
bions is, that the average quantity of the dry substance of
^at is, excluding the water it naturally contains — is, within

small fraction, one pound per head per day, including both
ad all ages.

now come to the second main element in our calculation,
, to a consideration of what amount of the carbon of the food

by the lungs. And when it is borne in mind that this
ion by the lungs in the form of carbonic acid, is the chief
tion of that constituent in the food, and, therefore, that the
i thus traced, together with that found in the excrements,

verjr nearly make up the quantity taken in the food, the
int bearing of results of this kind will at once be obvious. On
int, then, we have, in Table III., the amounts of the carbon
food expired in a given time by persons of different sexes and
ccording to the results of direct experiments on respiration
y various chemists and physiologists. The chief labourers in
Id of inquiry have been Messrs. Allen and Pepys, Dr. Dalton,
)umas, Dulong, and Despretz, Mr. Coathupe, M. Scharling,
M. Andral and G^avarret. To the latter gentlemen — ^namely,
ndral and Gkivarret — we are indebted for a very extensive
)f determinations of the amount of carbon expired by the
a a given time by persons of both sexes and at different ages.

TABLE III.

^ Carbon expired in 24 hours. Kstimated by direct exper intent on

Human Retpir alien.

Ages, Cases, &c.

By whom estimated.

Males.

Females.

8 years.

10 do.

11 do.

12 do.

13 do.

14 do.

15 do.
15 do.

9i do.
10 do.

Andral and Oavarret.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Scharling.
do.

4-24
6-76
6-44
6*27
7-03

6-95
7-37

4-70

508
5-35

5-34

601
4-43

Lvei

'age under 16 years . . .

... ... ••• ••.

609

5-24

Id ON THE SBWAtJE OP LOHDOH.

TABLE III.— (cOS-nsVKDy—Ouiuvt of Oarbi't expired in 2i hmrt. Afiai'r'
by dirFCt fxperimrnl nH Hunan Brfpiratia%.

—

AgM, Cmm, fto.

By whom estimated.

Male*

Feniila

I6yeare.

Scharling.

7-92

19 do.

do.

IS! do.

Andral and Oavarret.

5-3*

161 do.

do.

1.*) to 20

17 do.

do.

H-M

years.

19 do.

do.

9-W

19 do.

do.

949

5-93

20 do.

do.

9-49

Average from IS to aOyeare

8-93

5 7'J

22 yean.

5-6tt

24 do.

do.

9-40

24 do.

do.

9-8S

26 do.

do.

1I-S5

-.-o*

iO to :lii

26 do.

do,

9-32

5-34

ream.

27 do.

do.

lO-OO

28 do.

do.

10-60

Dr. Dalton

D«lton,

1025

M. Lumaa, 20 yean

Dumas.

A Soldier, 28 years

Scharling.

S'46

Areoiffe from 20 to 30 yews

9-51

-tl years.

Andral and Gann«t.

949

.5-M

S2 do.

do.

974

;h do.

do.

9^)6

37 do.

do.

9i)6

-Sti to Jii

3i do.

do.

6-«l

years.

40 do.

do.

10-26

U do.

AUea and PepTB.

11-00

U da

Coathnpe.

6-46

a.i do.

Sch&rling.

7-76

Avenge from :lli to 40 years

8-97

S-M

11 years.

Aadral and Gavarret.

8-81

42 do.

do.

7«

43 do.

do.

40 lo .-*

44 do.

do.

»n

years.

4.-. do.

do.

7-33

s-xs

4 A do.

do.

S-93

4V do.

do.

e-i!

.--] do.

do.

9-0*

Atpf

age from 40 to oO year*

8-51

tiu

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

III. — (continued).— Ounce* of Carbon expired in 24 hourt. Estimated
htj direct experiment on Human Respiration,

Ages* Cases, &c.

By whom estimated.

Males.

Females

51 years.

52 do.
54 do.
56 do.
59 do.

Andral and Gavarret.
do.
do.
do.
do.

8*56
8-98
8-47

6-35
601

Average from 50 to 60 years

8-67

618

64 years.
66 do.
68 do.

Andral and Gavarret.
do.
do.

7-37
818

5-86
5-76

Average from 60 to 70 years

7-75

5-80

P-3

76 years.
82 do.
92 do.
102 do.

Andral and Gavarret.
do.
do.
do.

508

745

500

5*59
508

Average from 70 upwards

5-84

5-33

)froi
B f roi
3 froi
B froi

Q 15 to 40 years

n 40 upwards

n 15 to 50 years

n 50 upwards

••* ••• ••• •••

••• ••• ••• •••

••• •■• ••• •••

••■ ••• ••• •••

917
7-76
907
7-88

5-63
6-26
610
5-77

experiments were made upon more than seventy individuals,
►f them of the male, and half of the female sex. It would be
f place here to dwell on ceitain most important physiological
gB of these experiments ; but it may be submitted, in passing,
I careful study of them would well repay the intelligent
liau, and especially those who devote themselves moi-e cx-
sly to diseases of the respiratory organs. Such a study might,
5t, give a ver}' useful turn to future ubser\'ation and inquiry ; if
ideed, at once suggest valuable practical conclusions,
ih regard to the applicability of experiments of this kind to a
sal discussion as to the average amount of carbon expired by a

population within a given time, such, for instance, as the
period of twenty-four hours, or of a whole year, it may be said,
18 such experiments are made only during a state of wakeful-
heir indications must be too high for the period of the night,
le other hand, since they are, also, only made whilst the in-
lal is at rest, their results would be too low for the periods of

18 OX TIIK SEWAfiE OF LOXDOX.

exposure ttiul exercise. These two soiu'ces of error tend to l«laute
(^cli other thei^^foixj, and in jwint c»f fact, the very obvi(>m and
uniform relation of the amounts of (!arlK)n shown to Ix? expired to
those consumed in the food, would indicate that the resultant error
cannot be very great. And if any judgment were to W formed «.'f
the direction of the dis(*repancy from the comparison with the
amounts consumed, and a consideration of the amounts approioitfl
by the other requirements of the body, it would l)e concludea tlui.
ujxai the whole, the figures indicating the (juantity expired by the
lungs are, i)erhaps, somewhat too low.

An insiKiction of Table III. shows that, up to the age of abont l'»
or 1(J yeai's, there is a gmdual increase in the amount of carlfOiut'ii-
sumed by iMjth sexes, the actual (juantity Ixii ng always rather hijrbcr
for the male. From this ixjriod, the quantity still inci'eases in the
case of the male until pist middle, or to compiir.itive old age, when it
U'trjns gradually to diminish. With the female, on the other hand,
this consumption by the lungs remains stati(»nary in amount fixmthe
age of 1;") or 1(1 yeai*s to alxmt 4o. It then for a time somewhat
increjisos : and finally, as in man decreases with old age — the female,
however, always keeping an average somewhat ImjIow that of the
male.

A comparison of the amounts of carbon consumcMl in fcnnl in 54
hours with those of it expired by the lungs during the sjuhc ]}mA.
shows a general average of from one t^) one and n half ounces more in
the fo(Kl than is ex])ired. It will ])resently Ik? seen that a lar^
] portion of this dill'erence is accounted for by the carbon contsunedin
the excrements, leaving an average of something less than three-
fourths (.)f an ounce iov the daily growth of the IkkIv, for nasal and
other incidental exci'etions, and for the i)ei*spii'ation. The in-
sistency of the indic^itions in exix^rimonts of so opi)Osite a kind, and
\\\\\{\v with such op])osite views, is at any rate surprising, and such a?
to leave no doubt of the general practical utility of tlie evidence <hi
the seyenil ]X)ints. This brings us to the third element in thecakti-
lation, nnmely, a consideration of the recorded amounts of the liqnid
and s<»lid excrements voided l>y iH^i*sons of different sex and ages
within a given ]XTiod, and of the amount«^ of some of the con-
stituents of those exc7"ements.

In Table IV. are arranged the amoimts of fresh excrements, or of
rortain of their constituents, voided in 24 hours, by persons of
different sex and ages, as recorded by various ex]xjrinientcr8. Thj
columns in the Table are headed resi)ectively — " Fresh Excrement*,
'* Dry Sulwtnnce,'' "Mineral Matter," "Carbon," " Nitrogen," and
" Phosphates," and the quantities given by the various experimenters
of any or of all these sul stances, as the case may be, arc entered in
these columns. In all ctuses, hc»wever, in whatever weights or
measures the exixjriments a7*e originally stated, they have been w*

OK THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

iiizi

IIL

■ iiJ!iil!j!il

13??"

■ -Js-

.liUllli. :J.i|

5s!!l--

*l5l

g^jsiltela

Is rt'

jU^'

OS THE SEWAGE OF LOXlX>K.

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON. 21

dnced to the uniform deiiomiiiatiou of ounces (tenths, &c.) in our
Table. In many cases, too, the amount of certain compounds only of
nitrogen which the excrements contained, have been given, such as
urea and uric acid, and in these instances the amounts of nitrogen
as entered in the Table, liave l)een calculated according to the known
composition of those two substances. In the event, therefore, of the
urine containing any small amount of other compounds of nitrogen,
the quantities thus arrived at will be rather too low, though any error
arising from this source can be but comparatively insignificant. The
figures indicating the amount ot phosphates, again, are in many cases
only deduced from that of phosphoric acid or various compounds of
it, originally recorded. In these cases the amount is represented as
the bone-earth phosphate of lime.

Such, then, are the best data respecting the amount and com-
position of human excrements at our command. It is seen
that there are many more determinations of the amount and of
the constituents of urine than of faeces ; and since the urine not
only contains by far the larger part of the nitrogen of the excre-
ments— indeed, seven or eight times as much as the faeces, but
it is also more Uable to variation according to sex, age, diet, exercise,
and other causes — ^this is so much the better for the purposes of
obtaining a general average. There are very few experiments at all
referring either to boys or girls not exceeding 15 or 10 years ; and
there are much fewer for adult women than for men. The number
of experiments on adult males is, however, sufficient both as to urine
and faeces. On adult females they are so, perhaps, so far as urine is
concerned, but we have only one recorded experiment of the amount
of faeces voided by woman in a state of health, though there are
some under disease, and the one in question is obviously very low,

i'odging by the relative amounts of food consumed by the two sexes,
t is possibly owing to the comparatively limited number of the
experiments on the excrements of women, that we find a somewhat
larger average proportion of loss of nitrogen indicated for the female,
tlian for the male part of the population. When, however, we con-
sider that the nitrogenous contents of the urine depend much upon
the activity of the person, we might expect, on this ground, to find a
larger proportion so voided by men than by women. On the other
hand, it must be admitted, that we have no sufficient means of
deciding in what manner the exhalation in the gaseous form of
nitrogen, derived from the food — and, therefore, lost to the excre-
ments— is affected by the degree of rest or activity of the body.

Whilst referring to the question of the proportion of nitrogen lost
to the excrements beyond the amount which is devoted to the in-
crease of the body, we may briefly notice the state of our knowledge
on the subject of the exhalation by the lungs and skin, of nitrogen
derived from the food.

22 ox THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

Many exi)eriments have from time to time been made, to ixieT-
mine whether or not i^irt of the nitrogen of the food is exhaled t»S
the lun^. Some of the results on this head appear to carry wit^
them their own refutation. Thus, for instance, the amomit*
estimated to be exhaled by ^IM. Dulong and De8i)retz, in wnx^
instances would far exoee<l the total average projiortion of nitrc^-*"*
to carbon in the food consumed by the aninml. Some of the rcsulCss
of ]^I. Edwards exhibit a similar anomaly. It should be stated, thf*^
the amount of nitrogen evolved by an animal under experiment is?*-*
according to the method of the exjverimenter, represented either ii*
relation to the totiil oxygen consumed by the respiration in the sani.«^^
]KTiod of time, to the amount of oxygen given off in combinaii(»*i
witli carljon iis carbonic acid, or to the amount of carliouic aci«^>
itself evolved. It will l>e more convenient, however, for our pux"—
jjose, to speak of this evolution in i-elation to the amount of raihi*^*
expired, or contained in tlie food, or to the total amount of tiitrot/r'^^
itself consumed in the food. Kwluced to these standards ^-►^
ijomjKirison, the amounts of nitrogen which Marchand found evolve?^*-^
by the rcspimtion of small herbivorous animals, were a1x>ut i T^<-^
every loO of carlK)n expired. According to the results of M^^-
Regnault and lleiset, which are i)erhai>s the best series on thissu"*'*^
ject, they consider that there are seldom 3 jwits of nitrt»geu evolvt-r^<^
to 10<) of carbon, and never double that amount. Tliey estimate th.a-^"^
less* is evolved on an animal than on a vegetable diet. Ihis latter wi:*^-* "^
accords in the nuiin with the direction of the results of MM. Dulon P^ "
l)es])retz, and Edwards, and also with conclusions arrived at *r_"»y
Bischoff, derived from a totally different class of exiierimenc:-- ^=^ '
namely, those on the circumstances affecting the amounts of nitro^r*-^^^^
voided in the lu^ine. ^Magnus also considers that nitrogen is evolvir-^ • *
Pfaff and others, however, confute this opinion. - _

U|>on the whole, it must be admitted, tliat the bulk of our tcsC- ^Z
niony goes to establish that there is, fretjuently at leai?t, a loss *— ;^ ^
some piu't of the nitrogen of the f<Hxl in the gaseous fonn ; yet th*-
as to the amount of this loss under any given circumstances, or i
variation, according to diet, class of the animal, age, sex, &c.,
have still much to learn.

Exijeriments of another kind, however, have l)een made to dete

mine the iptestion indirectly. Thus, M. Boussingault fed a eowai^ ^^

a horse for a certain lengtli of time on food just sufficient to ktt^]^^

their weights constant, and weighed and analyseil Ix^th their foodai^ '^^

their solid and licjuid excrements. By this method he found tl-^

proportion of the nitmgen of the food which was lost by exhalation'* ^

to amount to —

For the Cow .... 18'87 j)er cent.

For the Horse .... 10*55 do.

* 'I'his is the case when birds and mammalia are both incladed in the
parison ; bnt comparing only mammalia with mammaliai the evolation
greater on a meat than on a vegetable diet.

ox THE SEWAGE OF LONDON. 23

efore stated, very many experiments of this kind have been
i Rothamsted, the results of which, however, do not justify us
oiincing an opinion upon what is the range of this gaseous
on of nitrogen, or what are the circumstances which increase
nish it.

uch, then, for the results of direct experiments on respiration
pon small animals, and for those on the food and excrements
animals of the farm, to determine the gaseous exhalation of
1 by the vital processes.

only experiments of this kind pretending to any detail or
y, which have been made ui.>on the human subject, are those
:^rral, of Paris. M. Ban-al analyzed the food and the excre-
>f himself during two periods of live days each, as well as of
rly man, a woman of 82 yciu-s of age, and a boy of Gi years,
►r a like jieriod of time. These exjxjriments were, however,
ducted so much in special reference to nitr<.)gen as to certain
jonstituents ; and there are, moreover, some points in M.
3 method of treating the excrements which open reasonable
vhether a jwrtion of their nitrogen was not lost in the process
ysis. The pro^x^rtions of the nitrogen consumed in the food,
in these experiments were not recovered in the excrements, and
3onseiiuently are supposed to l)e exhaled, were as follows : —

Man, 29 years, in Winter . oTOl per cent.

Ditto ditto, in Summer . . 47*51) ditto.

Boy, t)i years, in Februaiy . o7'97 ditto.

Iklan, 59 years, in March. . 35*17 ditto.

Woman, 32 years, in May . 51*83 ditto.

^lean of 5 ex[)eriments . 44*72 per cent.

results, then, of these direct experiments on the human sub-
ow an apparent exhalation, and therefore loss of nitrogen U)
irements, amounting to nearly 45 per cent, of the nitrogen
:ed in the food. It will presently be seen, that this proportion
is al)out twice as great iis that aiTived at by our method of
ing the amounts of nitrogen contained in the food, and in the
ents respectively, of the population of London.
Table v., the average amounts of carbon expire«l by the res-
sexes at different ages, as given in Table III., are calculated
number of each of these classes constituting the population
idon. We have thus, in the upixjr portion of this Table V.,
omits of carbon expired per annum, by the number of indivi-
ncluded in each division according to age and sex. In the
two main divisions of the Table, the average amomits of
and nitrogen constinml in foody as deduced from Table II., are
IS practicable, in like manner, applied to the different ages and

OX THE REWAGE OF LONDON.

0 e

3«

4
B

« Z

^11 r

9 k.

c
c
c

e i

ni\i.

1 I

1?!

"EE

Is
a?

B
C

i \

:|iill.i.5 S f

111

ii"

T
"S

5SS535gT

S X S JC X X«»«3

c
ft

;?5SS98?e

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

sexes of the population. And, in the same way in Table VI., the
amoants and constituents of the excrements voided in 24 hours, as
given in Table IV., are also calculated to their respective divisions of
file population. In the lower portions of each of these Tables (V.
and Vi.), a summary is given, showing the average amounts of the
respective constituents, consumed, expired, or voided, as the case may
be, in 24 hours, and per annum, for each individual of each of the
separate sexes, for each individual of the mixed population, and
also the total amounts for the total population of the metropolis.

Before entering upon a discussion of the information afforded in
Table VI., as to the amounts of the various manurial constituents
contained in the excrements of the population of London, it may be
well to call attention to a comparative view of the average amounts
of carbon and nitrogen consumed in food, exhaled, or voided in ex-
crements, in 24 hours, as indicated by the results, arrived at in these
Tables (V. and VI.). This comparison is afforded in the following
Summary Table : —

Table VII.

HMces {tenths^ Jj^c.) of Carhim and Nitrogen 2)^^ h^ad per day — Consumed in Food
-^Bxpired by the Lungs — Voided in Excrements — in Orotvthy Perspiration^
LoaSj Ji'c. Average for all Ages of each Sex separately^ atid for both Scxta
eMectitely.

Sexes, Age8, kc.

7erag« of Males of all I

BpL^P ••* ••• ••■ •■•■

verage of Females of i

all ages ]

ferage of both sexes )
and all ages f

verage of Families, &c.

Carbok

4-*

£i

1-5

9-26
7-27

8-20

7-92

5-68

6-73

919

0-847
0-643

0739

-ft!

0-493

0-947

0-731

Nitrogen.

0-528

0-367
0-440

0-500

c
S
o

0-422

0-283
0-348

S K

hHpg

0-106

0-084

0-092

an
-" s

u O

20-07

22-86

20-91

It is seen, that the sum of the carbon expired and in the excre-
neats, deducted from that in the food, leaves for the growth of the
body, for the perspiration, and other minor outlets, an average of
ibont three-quarters of an ounce of carbon per day for each indivi-
laal of the papulation. On this point it need only be further stated,
iluit, having talken the weights of several hundred individuals of both

26 ox THE SEWAfJlJl OF LONDON.

sexes and all ages, with a view to ciilciilating the average aun^
growth of the body, it can safely Ije affirmed that this amonut <>}
('arlM)n is more than sufficient to supply this growth, and thft^ ^^
leaves a considerable margin for the perspiration, and the other
demands uix>n it, which have Ix'cn refeiTcd to ; and even after tWM
further allowance sup|K)sing that there will Ixi a certain waste of food,
that is to sjiy, that the amounts i*egistered in a dietary Mill be soiu^
what in excess by a ceitain amount of ofTal, of the quantity actually
consumed.

The j-ame may Ix; said of the nitrogen, namely, that the amoun's
given in the table as remaining for gro\>th, exhalation, &c., are iiiu^'^
more than sufficient to meet the exigencies of the former, and th*?y
Ixisjieak, indeed — so far as the figures can be taken as a true repre-
sentiition of the facts — a considerable gaseous exhalation or loss to
the manure of that valuable element. Tlie proportion of the loss t^j
the excrements, bv growth and exhalation, as indicated bvthis meth<w
of computation, is seen to be for the average of males about 2(>, **^J
the average of females, :^2f, and for the average of both sexes, a^*"
all agt'S, alwjut 21 \yktv cent, of the amount of nitrogen estimattHi ^^
supplied in the food. 'JMiis loss, as has l)een before stated, is odIJ
al>out half that found in the direct exi)eriments of M. Barral. It JJ*
worthy of remark, however, that the amounts of loss indicated }^
our method of calculation agree much more nearly than those of ■^^'
Barnil, with the determinations of the same kind made by M. B*^*^
singault, and at Rothamsted, on the lower animals. It should *!^
rememWed, t<x), that the conclusion arrived at by MM. Regn^^'J
and Reiset, from their exj)eriments on the gaseous prodncts of ^*^
respiration of small animals was, that the proportion of nitrc>g*''^
exhalt'tl to that of oxygen consumed, seldom amounted to 1 per crcnt.
Now, supjx^sing we assume half this proportion of nitrogenous ^^'
halation to represent the average, this would amount to about ^\
jier cent, of nitrogen evolved to loo of carbon expired, on ^^^
sup[x)sition that D-loths only of this consume<l oxygen are evolvc?<i ^
carl)onic acid. And if we further sup]X)se, that there ^vill be 1- -"^.
more carl)on in the food than is exhaled, and that, as indicate?*=l |?
our dietary tables, the ])roix»rtion of nitrogen to carbon in the f oofl»
will Ikj rr5 i>er cent. — this would give us an exhalation of 2i'\^ P?j|
cent, of the total nitrogen consumed in the food — an amount, it> ^
Ixi seen, which agrees very closely with the indications of the t>«hfc'
It is true that our computations of the average (juantity of iiitT"*^
consumed in food, and voided in excrements, are not deduced » ^"^^
those of ]M. BaiTal, from exi>enments as to both, made on the same
individual, at one and the same time. Yet the results we te^
brought to lx»ar on these i>oints are so inmierous, and the confinniUiJOD
of tliem afforded by other considerations is so striking, tliat ttc aw
inclined to adopt the view more favourable to the quality of the
sewer water.

ON THE SEWAGE OP LONDON.

fter this full discussion of the nature of the evidence at command
the estimation of the composition of the excrements of a large
h3 population, let us see what are the results to which it has
ght us. In Table VIII. is given at one view an abstract of the
Its more copiously stated in Table VL

Table VIIL

tfiHff the EntinuUed CoiistitiietUn of the Human Excrciiientx of Lotidon.

Constituents.

Ounces per
head per day.
Average of
both 8uxea
and all ages.

Pounds per
head per
annum.
ATcragu of
both sezea
and all ages.

Tons per

Annum.

Total for

both sexes

and all ages.

^^snbetance

2-01

45-95

51,286J

*1 matter

"^ *■■••■ ••• •■• ••■ ■•■ ••• ••« ••• •••

1 ^3<U ••« ••■ ••• ••• ■•• ••• ••• ••• •••

'en=ammoiiia

bates

0-45
074
0-35
0-42
0-20

10-34

16-85

7-94

9-64

4-58

11,5362
18,8094

8,859f
10,7581

5,108

he average amount of real diy substance voided in the excrements
«ch individual of the population in 24 hours, is thus seen to Ik;
' two ounces ; or eqnal to al)out 4r)lbs. per annum. This 2 ounces
liy substance will contain rather less than half an ounce of
eral matters, and the annual amount of these per head mW l)e
It lO^Ibs. ; and about f of the mineral matters voided, or
It ^\y of the total dry substance, will be phosphates. Of carbon
he excrements, there is about | of an ounce per head per day,
U to about 17lbs. per annum. Of the valuable constituent nitro-
. there is an average of rather more than ^ of an ounce per

or about Slbs. per annum ; and these amounts of nitrogen are
il to -42 of an ounce per day, and nearly lOlbs. per annum of
:ionia.
Tie amount of the constituents voided by the total ix>pulation in

year, if entirely freed from water, is seen to be 5l,28Gj tons.

this about i is mineral matter ; and the nitmjen it contains
>nnts to about J of the whole, namely, 8,851»| tons, which is
al to 10,758^ tons of ammonia. Now little more than \ cwt.
immonia is the usual artificial dressing for an acre of cereal grain,

it might be calculated to yield an increase of crop of 10 to 12
hels of wheat, or this 10,758^ tons of ammonia would afford a
iuce of about 000,000 quarters, if it could l)e conveniently
lied for such a puii)ose. The intrinsic value of the sewage of

28 ON THE HEWAGB OF LONDON.

TiOndon, considered in this merely cliemical point of view, is therefore
enormous. Indeed, according to the above supposition, it would
return to the metropolis nearly one-third of the wheat consumed br
its population. If, however, it were thus devoted exclusively to the
j^wtn of corn, it would, at the rate above mentioned, extend over
more tlian 400,000 acres of land. But this ammonia in the sewase
of London is unfortunately distributed through an enormous bulk of
watei', and Mr. Wicksteed has shown us how immense would be the
cost of distributing this material over any such enormous area of
land in the liquid form.

This leads me to a consideration of Mr. Wickstced's alternative of
a solid manure ; and also to a closer calculation of the amount uf
fluid through which the manurial constituents which have been
named are distributed in the metropolitan sewage. And, 1 shall
endeavour to show that, for other purposes much more needed than
corn-growing, in the immediate neighbourhood of a large city, the
areii of land over which such an amount of fluid, and such amounts
of manurial constituents, may be employed, can Ikj very consideraWj
reduced ; so nnich so, indeed, that whilst I consider the application
over so large an area quite impracticable, I am of opinion that the
fluid might l)e applied over the more limited one, at a cost which
would be small comijared with the vast sanitary objects, and other
advantages which are in view.

MR. WICKSTKEJ)'S PROCESS.

Last year Mr. Thomas Wicksteed was requested by the Metro-
politiin Commission of Sewers to furnish a report upon a proce*
pitented by him, for obtaining a solid manure from sewage. This
report is very ably drawn up, and gives estimates of the expense of
cjirrying out his process for the London districts, and it also mcludtf
calculations to show the im|X)ssibility of emplojnng such a htfp
amount of liquid profitably by irrigation. Ajs I am compelled tj
differ from Mr. Wicksteed as to the applicabihty of his process, and
JUS he states that it would require a capital of one million to apply *J
to the metropolitan sewage, I feel tliat a few remarks on his data and
calculations will not \ye out of place. Mr. Wicksteed's method con-
sists in adding a certain quantity of lime to the sewage, by which the
insoluble and suspended matters, and also some small portion of thcae
in solution, are carried down in the form of a li(|uid mud. This
mud, after proper sul>8idence, is removed into a centrifugal machiD^t
by the rapid revolution of wliich a certain portion of the remaining
water is tnrown off. The manure is afterwards further dried bf ^'
posure to a current of air in sheds. The value of this solid prodnc*
Mr. Wicksteed estimates at from £2 to £2 13s. per ton. He does
not, however, give any analysis of it, and consequently the Cofflj
missioners have not the means of judging how far this estintf^
value is justified, or whether it is subject to correction.

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONI>ON. 29

I have already shown you how entirely the value of a manure must
iepend upon its containing certain ingredients, and that it is useless
DO attempt to put a value on any manure irrespective of its com-
position. I will, therefore, now inquire, first, what would be the
chemical composition of such a sewage manure ? — and secondly,
(vhat would be its probable money value ?

Mr. Wicksteed has stated in his Report, that although the manure
he had sent out, owing to some irregularity in the manufacture, con-
:»ined 60 to 70 per cent, of water, it would, when properly prepared,
contain only about 20 per cent. Now, to this 20 per cent, of water
moBt be added the lime employed to precipitate tne sewage matter.
His calculation is, that 47,631 tons of lime will be required for the
whole sewage of London, and that this will yield a produce of
220,451 tons of manure. Thus it would contain about 21^ per cent,
of lime, and as the lime when mixed with the sewage, would for the
most pajrt be converted into carbonate, we must add 16^ to the 21^
of lime, which would give us about 38 per cent, of carbonate of lime
or chalk. Chalk and water will, therefore, constitute about 58 per
cent, of the manure. It is not difficult to estimate the composition
of the remaining 42 per cent. It can contain but a very small portion
of the ammonia of tne excrements, for 8 or 9 tenths of the whole of
this would be perfectly dissolved in the water ; and it is well kno^Ti
to chemists that the addition of lime will not precipitate ammonia
from solution. Almost the whole, therefore, of this, the most
valuable constituent of the excrements, will remain in some form
or other in the liquid. It cannot, either, contain much phosphoric
acid, because the amount of this in the total sewage would be but
small in proportion to the sedimentary matters, and to the chalk and
water of the manure so made. This remaining 42 per cent, must
consist, therefore, of a small quantity of organic matter, with sand
and clay, together with some little sulphate of lime or gypsum, and a
verv insignificant amount of tlie alkalies potash and soda.

6ut we are not left to conjecture merely, as to the coni]X)sition of a
sedimentary sewage manure, such as that which would be the result
of Mr. Wicksteed's process. Professor Way, in his valuable paper
upon the composition of sewage, published in the Journal of the
Uoyal Agricultural Society of England, has given us three analyses
of manures made by adding charcoal and lime to sewage water, and
in none of these does the ammonia amount to 2 per cent., whilst the
average amount of phosphate of lime is less than 5 per cent., equal
to about half that quantity of phosphoric acid. Yet the manures
yielding these results were analyzed in a much drier, and therefore
more concentrated state, than it would be possible to produce them
on the large scale. The (juantity of chalk amounted to from 30 to
40 per cent. ; but as charcoal as well as lime was employed in the
manufacture, the proportion of chalk in the manure would be less
than by Mr. Wicksteed's process, in which lime alone is used.

IM)

OX THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

Mr. Hempiith, of Bristol, has, however, pnbhshed an analysis of mauiiK
made from 8ewa«:e by lime alone. He stat^ that it is prepared^!
the prisonere in Cardiff gaol, by adding lime-water in just suffic^^^
([uantity to precipitate the fascal matters from the sewage. Vl^
stove-dried, so iw to contain less than 5 per cent, of water, ^^
amount of ammoniii was only 1^, and that of phosphoric acid ouly -
jKir cent. Tlie remainder consisted of nearly 70 parts chalk, abo"Ut ^
of gypsmn, some insoluble siliceous matter, and about 16 of organic
suletance, in whioh latter was contained the small amonixt of
ammonia or nitrogen above mentioned. This analysis of the Car-
diff manure agrees very closely, in all essential points, with those <rf
Professor Way — the chalk in the former being abont equal to the
cliarcoal and chalk in the latter. Mr. Herapath remarks, tha.^ his
analysis shows al)out three times as much nitrogen or ammoixia iu
this manure as there is in farm-yaini dung ; but it may be obst^xved,
tliat if farni-yai*d manure were dried to the same extent as the se^ y^^
comiH)st, it would in that state contain as much ammonia a.s3 the
latter.

In the following Table (IX), is given a summary of these ana-^lv«*
by ]\rr. Way and ^Ir. Herajwth ; and by their side is a coliunn sh*ir»^'i"r
wliat constituents would l)e supplied in a ton of the lime-pro-^Lriucw
manure, if it contained 2o ]x?r cent, of water, as supposed b^s*^ ^^y-
Wicksteed ; and in the fourth column, for the sake of compftri?s^»»i ^*
shown what is the j.)ei-centiige of nitrogen, phosphates, Ac, L :m\ the
pure dry sul)stance of mixed human excrements.

T.VHLE IX.

• ■ • « • •

Water

Organic matter..

Earthy phosphates

^ Carbonate lime (with

magnesia)

Oxide iron and ala-

Othcr
mineral
matters.

miua

SiliceouB matter
Sulphate of lime
Alkaline salts

Nitrogen

Nitrogen== Ammonia

• • « • • •

•3 >iJS

Pt*r cent.
4(i
*30-4
47

38-0

2-3

12-4

6-7

Per cent
4-7
liVy
41

69-3

2-7
3-3
a little

llK)-0

1000

1-4
1-7

112
1-36

||8

cwxs. qra. Ibfl.
4 0 0

2 2 0
0 3 0

11 2 0
1 1 0

20 0 0

0
0

0 21
0 26

s ■

• • •

1 2-fi

* Chiefly ctiarco;iI.

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON. 31

Such, then, are the constituents which it may be calculated would
>e contained in 1 ton of Mr. Wicksteed's sewage manure at a cost of
S2, this being the price upon which he bases his estimate of 22 per
ent. profit upon a capital of 1 million. Now, as I have already
aid, my farm is situated 25 miles from London, and the cost of
tringing from thence 1 ton of manure is 15 shillings. But before
ftorchasing any manufactured manure, I should sit down to calculate
t what price 1 could puj.x;hase the constituents it contained ? I find
^ ci^iis. Peravian guano would supply all the nitrogen or ammonia,
nd the phosphoric acid of such a sewage manure ; 3 or 4 cwts. of
ott€^ straw would supply all its organic matter ; and the residue I
ould obtain from the chalk and sand pits. Thus, for about 25
hlUiugs, I could bring upon my land the constituents of a ton of
his manure, and for 30 shillings less money. Again, to supply the
mount of ammonia put upon the experimental plot No. 16 in 1854,

should require nearly 7 tons of the sewage manure at a cost, iii-
luding carriage, of about £11). I could obtain the same amount in

cwt. of sulphate of ammonia, at a cost of £5. Such, then, is the
lature of the facts which lead me to the conclusion, that a sedi-
fienfari/ sewage manure caiuiot be profitably made by Mr. Wicksteed's
process, or, I may add, by any known process.

Compare this composition and rate of value of a sedimentary
.ewage manure, with those of pure and dry human excrements, as
riven in the fourth column of the last table. Supposing it were
x)6sible, which it certainly is not, so to separate b^ie constituents from
lewage, as to get a manure of such a composition as this, there is no
loubt it would sell for about £15 per ton ; and since the excrements
>f each individual of the population contain in one year 40 lbs. of
mch dry substance, it would take 48 i^rsons to produce 1 ton of it
per annum ; and this would give an annual value of about 6 shillings
for the excrements of each person ; and at these mtes the totiil value
of our 51,635 tons of dry substance contained hi the excrements of
the total population of the metropolis, would realise the sum of
iB774,525. And even assuming that it could be obtained, mixed
with its own weight of water and the extraneous solid matters of
sewage, it would still contain nitrogen equal to rather more than 1(»
per cent, of ammonia. Such a manure as this would bear cost of
carriage to a considerable distance, and would be worth but little less
than half as much per ton, as the unmixed dry excrements. The
mixed solid and liquid excrements, in the condition in which they
leave the body, contain as much as 94 or 95 per cent, of water, and
it is possible that, in that state, it might be profitable to evaporate or
othenvise manufacture them into a solid manure ; even then, how-
ever, it would require 16 or 17 tons of fresh excrements to produce 1

ton of portable manure. But it is not thus that we have to deal

with them in sewage ; there can be httle doubt that, as so diluted.

32 ON THE HEW AGE OF LONDON.

about D-teutlis of their most valuable constituent — ^nitrogen, will
perfectly dissolved in the water, and will remain bo after the sepci
tion of a sedimentary manure by any process kno^Ti.

Considering, then, the profitable manufacture of a solid sewf
manure quite impracticable with our present knowledge, I now tu
to the question of the employment of sewage in the liquid form i
irrigation ; and I will first make a few remarks on Mr. Wicksteed
elaborate calculations on the cost of distributing the sewage of Loi
don in this manner. Wlien I tell you that he estimates the capita
re(|uircd for this purpose would be nearly twelve millions, and tb<
area over which it would extend at 3,500 square miles, or more thai
two million acres, 1 need hardly say that, miless some error is to b<
found in his estimates, the employment of sewage by irrigation i^
altogether impossible.

I think that such an error does exist, and, as it occurs at the \»^^
of his edifice, it materially affects the whole superstructure. Mt
Wicksteed founds his calculation upon a supply of 150 tons of sewa^
to an acre of land annually ; and (m this point quotes the authorit;
of the late Mr. Smith, of Deanston, who estimated from 80 to 1 6'
tons as a proper (luantity. This 150 tons of sewage is estimated t
contaiii 6 c>\'t. of solid matter ; the calculation being made from tb
analysis of Professors Brand and Cooper, who found one part of AX
substance in 500 parts of sewage. This analysis, however, was vob^
some time ago, when the supply of water was supposed to be abo*
20 gallons per head daily ; but Mr. Wicksteed has founded his otl»^
calculations upon a supply of 36 gallons, which would, of cour^
reduce the estimated quantity of solid matter in 150 tons of liqui*
by nearly half. Now, 3G gallons per head per day is about 60 K^^
per head per annum ; so that the excrements of 2^ individuals o!»
of tlie population, would be supplied to each acre of land, and tJ
amount of dry substance contained in the excrements of these ^
pei-sons would be rather less than 1 c^vt. It would obviously 1
little less than absurd to be at the expense of laying down pipes ''
supply an acre of land with such a minute (juantity of sewage matU'
as this. You cannot call a field irrigated which receives, in t3
course of a year, little more fluid than might fall upon it in one day
rain. If sewage is to be turned to any profitable account, it obvious
cannot be bv sending a pipe into Oxfordshire, another into Bedfcw*'
shire, into Efssex, and into Surrey, and selling it out by the gallon,
you would ale or porter. So far, then, I quite agree with Mr. Wic^
steed, that if the area of land he supposes be required, it is quS
impracticable so to apply the metropolitan sewage.

With regard to what is, probably, the amount of fluid that woO
have to be disposed of, in dealing with London sewage, I will si^
few words. By a return present^ to the Houses of Parliament &
July, it appears that the water delivered into the metropolis by t»

ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON 33

nine water oompanies, gives an average of from 24 to 25 gallons per
head per day on a population of 2^ millions. I find, also, that the
average fall of rain over the area supplied by the water companies
will give almost exactly a similar amount per head, namely, between
^ and 25 gallons. The supply of the companies and the rain-fall
taken together, therefore, give a gross amount of nearly fifty gallons
per head per day. But, from this a considerable portion must be
deducted for evaporation. Mr. Wicksteed estimates, however, that
the supply of the companies will very shortly be 36 gallons per head ;
and, as there is no doubt that they are preparing generallv to increase
the present amount, I am inclined to think tnat, by the time any
comprehensive scheme for the disposal of the London sewage can be
'^nght into operation, it will not amount to much less than 50
gallons per day for each individual of the population.

Fifty gallons per head per day would amount to 81^ tons per head

P^f annum, and, as it has been seen that the dry substance of the

*^crements of one individual is 46lb8. per annum, it follows that a

^ of sewage would only contain 9 ounces of these excrementitious

''^^ttere. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that when lime,

^phate of alumina, or other matters are added to sewage, it should

^ off from the sediment clear and tasteless. It may do so, and

*^iU retain, as undoubtedlv it does, almost the whole of the most

finable constituents of the excrements. On this point it may be

"^laarked that Mr. Wicksteed states, that the lime process does not

1^ properly when the sewage is not very dilute ; and 1 myself noticed

'^^ year, that the sewage, after being submitted to Mr. Stoddart's

P*t>ce8s, had a strong urinous odour.

. In conclusion, there can be little doubt, that if the sewage of
/ondon is to be turned to some useful purpose, it must be applied
'^ the liquid form in such quantities as to yield the greatest possible
^^>^wth that land and season are capable of. And, certainly the
J^ormouB amounts of produce of Rye-grass, which have lately
^^^^n recorded as the produce of irrigation, and which there is
^^ reason to doubt, were never obtain^ by such small amounts of
'^^l^id as the late Mr. Bmith, of Deanston, supposed sufficient.

For com crops an enormous supply of liquid manure is certainly

^^t well suited, for the influence of season fixes ah easily reached

*^Hciit to the produce of grain, the gross value of which cannot much

^^ceed £12 or £14 per acre. For market gardens, again, liquid

•^^age does not seem well adapted, as with its use the surface of the

"^»id is liable to become crusted, which is injurious in the growth of

^^getables. There is, however, another objection to any extensive

H^plication of sewage to this purpose, in the unhmited amount of

SOod stable manure which is easily carried back by the carts which

^nvey the produce to London. It could, moreover, be easily shown

t^iat the dung which was so comparatively inefficient a manure for the

34 ON THE SEWAGE OF LONDON.

growth of wheat, is, nevertlieless, peculiarly adapted for the pro-
duction of vegetables.

T return, therefore, to grass as the most suitable crop for the
application of liquid sewage. But that its use, even for this purpose,
should be attended with advantage, it must, as I said before, be em-
ployed in the most liberal quantities that the capabilities of land and
season will admit of ; and, in this way, it is not impossible that in
the neighbourhood of a large city a rental of £20 to £80 per acre
might be obtained. Experience alone can decide what is the mini-
mum area of land which would yield the maximum produce and
rental from the sewage of I.ondon ; but there can be little doubt that
it would require many thousand tons of sewage per acre to yield the
rental I have supposed. I may mention, however, that if 10,000
tons of sewage were annually applied to each acre, it would take
about 20,000 acres to absorb the whole sewage of London, upon the
estimate of 50 gallons per head per day. But it is even possible that^
so far as the quantity of liquid is concerned, the area might be reduced
below that which is here assumed. It will be said, perhaps, that such
an amount of sewage is much more than would be usefully applied
in furthering growth, or even that it would be wasteful or injunons.
The point, however, to which I wish particularly to call attention is,
that up to the limit at which either the amount of liquid, or of
manurial constituents, becomes positively injurious, an apparent
extravagant supply of ingredients on a limited area of land, wiD,
there is little doubt, yield a more profitable result than a saving of
manure with a more extended area.

There would surely be no great difficulty in appropriating a few
thousand acres at no great distance from the Thames to the purpose
in question. And grass being the produce grown, so milk ana cream
should be the chief products obtained in return. Irrigated grasB
appears to supply food peculiarly adapted for the production of milk ;
and there are certainly few articles with which the inhabitants of the
metropolis are so inadequately supplied. Whilst, therefore, thej
must oe justly charged for the removal of the sewage on sanitaiy
grounds, they might surely demand, that the cost should be lessened
bv a proper application of the sewage ; and it appears to me, that a
lioeraJ distribution of it on grass is the most promising means d
attaining this result.

London:

RK-PKI^TKD BT DUNN ASV CHIIXIJCY,
156-7, KiKGSLAND BOAD, B.

[From the "Report." "ordered, by the House of Commons,
TO BE Printed, August 3, 1857." Appendix, xii, p 477.]

LETTER FROM DR. GILBERT.

to the referees appointed to consider the plans proposed
for the main drainage of the metropolis.

Gentlemen,

I Herewith beg to hand you a few observations on the four
points submitted in yours of the 10th instant, for my consideration.

" Ist. The general consideration of the agricultural value of
sewage manure, both liquid and solid."

There cannot be the slightest doubt, that the constituents of
town sewage, arising from human excrements and other matters,
have in themselves a very high manuring value. Indeed the con-
clusion of Mr. Lawes and myself on this point is, that if the
constituents in the sewage of the metropolis could be conveniently
applied for the production of com, they would return somewhere
about one third of the wheat consumed by its population.* But,
owing to the circumstances under which these constituents are
presented to us in sewage water, their real practical value cannot
be estimated according to their chemical composition, in the man-
ner done with respect to concentrated portable manures. This
arises from the immense dilution of the manurial maftters by the
sewer water. Perhaps the best way of conveving a clear idea on
this point is to state that, if the solid and fiquid excrements of
each mdividual of a mixed population are supposed to be mixed
with water (by supply and rain-fell), at the rate, on the average,
of 50 gallons per nead per day, we should then have only nine
ounces of the oiy substance of human excrements distributed in
each ton of the water. By a similar mode of calculation, every
ton of the diy matter of the excrements, which, if obtainable in a
portable condition free from any admixture, would be worth rather
more than a ton of the best Peruvian guano, would in the form
of sewage be diluted vidth very nearly 4,000 tons of water.

* Indirectly, and cumulatiTely, their produotiveDefls would be much greater.

I need hardly su{rjrcst to a body of enjnnccrs, how very differeni
jiiusi be the iiK?thod and i^ost of distribution, and consequently
the practical value, of the ton of dry and pure exerementitious
matter — worth in that t*tate, say some £15. — and of the same ton
of niattir distribnted, on the avcrajre, through some 4,0U0 tons
of water, nioi*e (»r less. Hut the ditiieultv and increased cost of
the «renernl distribution are not the only disadvantages arising from
the sKhuixt lire of the manurial niatt^»rs with an enormous bulk of
water. Thus, if the exc.njnientitious matters were in a drv,
IKM-table, and non-]aitresc(int condition, like guano and other
concent rn ted manures — on which assumption alone could their
constituents be valued by the same tariff — ^they could like tl^sc
substanci^s be stored for any reasonable length of time, they could
be applied lo the land at the most fitting seasons, and, above all,
thoy wonhl be applicable to almost any crop, and e8i)ecially to com.
But the same matters, if distributed day by day, through (say)
4,000 times their weight of water, must inevitably be used, not
onlv at the b^st sensons, ]>ut davbvdav, and at all seasons. This
diluticm, and this constancy of supply, must also almost, if not
entirely, ])recln<le the use of the matters in the direct growth of
grain, for which pnrpi>se they would othenvisc be both the most
a])plieable and the most valuable. They would, in feet, necessarily
limit the use of the manurial matters, on the large scale, to the
growth of gmsses, and ixirhaps some other succulent crops, by
irrigation. 1 would liero remark, that it is a matter much to be
regretted, that the public mind should so fi-etiuently have been
misled as to the applicability of dilute town sewage for crops gen-
erally, by reference to the use of li<j[uid manure on farms, where,
not only the amount of fluid, but its concentration, and the time
of its api»lication, are entirely under control. With the very
dilferent ciivum stances of ioxnx sewage, vanishes entirely the foun-
dation for any conclusions regjuxling it, from such experience as
that alluded to. In the one case wc have a hmited amount of fluid,
any desiiird amount of concentration by the addition of manures,
and perfect control as to tlie time of application ; in the other,
the dilution iiTe vocable, an enormous supply constant, and the
time of api)licaiion almost entirely Ixjyond controL

The fpiestion anses then, — Can the valuable matters of sewage
water bi^ se]>ar*it<*d from it in the solid fonn, and sold at anything
like their theoretical value, like guano and other portable manures ?
Tliis brings me to your second heading of inquiry, namely, —

'* 2nd. An investigation of the probable relations of manu-
facturing cost and selling ])rice of solid sewage manure, founded
upon your own ex|Hnience."

I conceive that, before entering upon this enquiry, we should
first decide whether, by any known means, a solid manure, con-
taining the greater portion of the valuable constituents of the
excrementitious matters, can be obtained from sewer water ? To
this, as a Chemist, I answer most unhesitatingly in the negi^tive.
I do so the more emphatically, because, though I am perlbctly
aware that this opinion is not in accordance with the tendency of
the views of some Chemists of authority, upon whom the public
naturally and willingly rely, I am at the same time persuaded,
that their own judgment would agree with mine, were they, as
professional men, to give a detailed instead of a mere general con-
sideration to the subject; and also because, from the attention
and study which, in conjunction with Mr. Lawes, I have given to
the subject, I am satisfied, not only that the thing has never yet
been accomplished, but that, in tne present state of chemical
knowledge, it is absolutely impossible to accomplish it.

Let us take, in illustration, the important manurial constituent
— nitrogen, or ammonia : the per-centage of which will, in practice,
undoubtedly to a great extent determine the value of any solid
sewage manure. Not that the other constituents have no calcu-
lable value, but it is very much less, weight for weight, than that
of the nitrogenous ones, and owing to the great solubility of the
latter, they will always be, relatively to the others, in defect ; and
hence they will, practically, always greatly influence the money
value of tne manure.

By far the larger proportion of the nitrogenous compounds voided,
are found already dissolved in the liquid excrements. In sewage,
these and the solid excrements are almost infinitely diluted with
water, and the tendency of the chemical changes they undergo, is,
to convert the natural nitrogenous compounds inte more, not less
soluble combinations. Indeed, with the exception of a very small
amount of the voided nitrogenous matters, which remain as effete
particles of food and animal substance in the faeces, the whole of
the nitrogenous compounds voided are extremely soluble in water.
In fiact we should conclude, from knowledge of this kind, that
somewhere about 9-lOths of the nitrogenous substance in sewer
water must exist there, not merely as suspended matter, but abso-
lutely dissolved. Nor has any chemical method yet been proposed,
by which the so dissolved nitrogenous compounds can be re-precip-
itated, in the solid form, from so dilute a fluid as town sewage.
All the excrementitious nitrogenous matter, therefore, which can
be obtained in a sedimentary sewage manure, is that small propor-
tion which exists in an undissolved state in the fieees, together

with an immaterial proportion carried down mechanically, rather
than chemically, with the sediment.

Of the varioas chemical methods which have been proposed for
removing the sedimentary matter from dilate sewage, 1 beliere the
so called lime process to be the most efficient Imown. All the
analyses, however, which have yet been published npon good
authority, of the solid sewage manure so produced, perfectly agree
with theory as to the small amount of mtrogenous matter which
they contain. Professor Hofinann has also recently shown, that
when the excrements are treated by lime in a fresh and compar-
atively undiluted state, the sediment obtained still contains but a
very small per-centage of nitrogenous compounds. In facty so
small is the amount of valuable manurial constituents shown to
be contained in such solid sewage-manures, that they could only be
useful if applied to the land in several times as many tons per
acre as would be required in hundred-weights of guano, or the
pure dry excrements.

Under these circumstances, it would be useless to go elaborately
into the question of manufacturing cost and selling price. It is
obvious that such a manure would, on account of the cost of car-
riage, command no price at all beyond a very limited distance from
its place of manufacture. Tlie fact, indeed, that the price of such
a manure has, during the last two or three years, been reduced
from £2. to £3. per ton to about as many shUlings, is a practical
corroboration of this opinion. This brings me to the third sub-
ject of consideration, namely, —

" 3rd. The applicability of any system of utilisation of sewage
to the requirements of London."

Assuming the population of London to amount to from two and
a half to three millions, the amount of moist sedimentary manure
produced from its sewage, by the lime process, would be from
250,000 to 300,000 tons per annum, according to the estimates
published by those experienced in that plan. Excluding Sunday
as a day of transport, this would require tliat nearly 1,000 tons of
the pasty manure should be removed daily. Such a manure, as
has already been said, would contain but a very small proportion
of the valuable matters of the sewage. The value of that which
it did retain would be eaten up by a very few miles of land car-
riage ; whilst, at the rate even of 10 tons per acre, per annum, it
would require about 30,000 acres to be devoted to its use, to con-
sume the produce of London. When, however, we consider how

small a proportion of the land within a given circuit would be so
appropriated, and that bat a small proportion, using it at all, would
use it in the quantity supposed, some idea may be formed of the
area, round London, whicn would be required to consume its pro-
duce of such a solid sewage manure. We must further suppose
that, if this mode of utilisation were adopted for London, it would
be adopted for other towns and cities also, each supplying its pro-
portional area.

But granting these difficulties surmounted regarding the solid
deposit, we have still, with present knowledge and experience, to
assume that by for the larger proportion of the valuable matters
(probably nearly nine-tenths of the nitrogen) will remain in the
supernatant fluid. This being the case, the utilisation of the sewage
would not be effected, unless the clarified water were applied for the
purposes of irrigation. There can, indeed, be no doubt, that the
sewer water, whether before or after the application of the lime pro-
cess, would, if applied by irrigation, raise enormous crops of grass.
Whether, however, it is feasible to appropriate to such a purpose a
sufficient area of land to take the constimt supply of London, and
within such a distance from the metropolis as to render the under-
taking remunerative, is a question requiring too much of engineer-
ing datum for my own opinion respecting it to be of any real value.
This brings me to the fourth point submitted, namely, —

"4th, Your opinion as to what method of dealing with the
sewage is, on public grounds, best adapted to the metropolis."

From what I have already said, you will gather that I do not be-
Heve chemistry has yet proposed any method by which the valuable
constituents of dilute sewage can be remuneratively reclaimed and
utilized in the form of a solid manure. But, I take it, the question
now is — ^What is the best method of dealing with the sewage con-
sidered in a sanitary, as well as in a productive and agricultural
point of view ?

Assuming the excrementitious matters of the metropolis still to
be mixed, as at present, with an enormous bulk of water, the most
feasible alternatives appear to be —

1. That the sewage matter should be discharged and lost, but
more effectually, and at a greater distance from &e metropolis than
heretofore ; thus securing the sanitary objects, not only without any
return for the utilisation of the matters, but at a heavy increased
outlay.

2. We may supfK^se the crade sewage, unaffected by any process,
instead of being discharged and lost, to be applied for the growth
(chiefly) of grass, by some method of irrigation.

3. Looking chiefly at the sanitary side of the question, the fluid
may be so far disinfected as to allow of its being discharged much
higher up, and therefore at much less cost, into the river ; in which
case the small value of the solid matters, removed from the water,
may be considered in reference to the cost of the disinfecting process.

4. After employing some disinfecting method, the value of the
solid manure, and that of the supernatant liquid for the purposes
of irrigation, may both be set against the cost of the removal and
disinfection for sanitar}' purposes.

The first of these alteraatives, that of remo^ang and discharging
to waste, the whole of the sewage matter, at a sufficient distance,
would, of course, serve the sanitary requirements ; but at what cost,
it is not within my province to speculate upon. Whether such a
course, cff^ectual though costly as it would be, should or should not
be adopted, would dejxjnd n\yoii tlie judgement which must be formed
of the other three methods.

As to the second method, there is no doubt that the unsophisti-
cated sew^er water, if applied by irrigation in some way, would raise
enonuous crops of grass, and secure a very high rental to the land
devoted to it. If so applied, the object would, I think, be to limit
the cost of main distribution by limiting the area of land, at the
risk of somewhat lavish exjH?ndi'ture of manurial substance, rather
than to extend it with a view to the et^onomisation of the manure.
Whether, and at what distance from London, a sufficient amount
of land could be so aj^propriated ? whether a district bo devoted
would itself be healthy ? at what cost tlie distribution and application
could be eftected ? and, therefore, how far the scheme would lessen
tlie cost of cleansing the metropolis ? arc questions which it is not
for me to answer.

The third and fourth methods seem to be worthy of a seriouS'-i^
examination.

Of all the disinfecting methods which have yet been proposed, —
believe that which is known as the lime process is by fiBW the mostr>
practicable and effective on the lai-ge sc^le. Of the probable value o^*"
the solid manure obtained by sucli means, I have already given m^
opinion at some length. But the question gttill remaina, whether"
the clarified fluid is really so far disinfected, and rendered noa—
pntn>sc-ible, that it might with impunity Ikj turned into the river

much higher up than the crude sewage could be ? The only scientific
"examination of this point with which I am acquainted, namely,
that by Dr. R. A. Smith, seemed to indicate that, though at first
cleared by the lime process, the fluid after a short time again
manifests putrescence. The question of the degree in which it does
80, and that of how far the water would still be innocuous, at any rate
when again diluted by the Thames, seem to be of the utmost
importance, and to demand a thorough experimental investigation.
The result might, indeed, vary with the varying conditions of
concentration and decomposition, at different times and places.

The fourth alternative is that of disinfecting the sewer water, and
at the same time using, as manure, both the solid product and the
clarified liquid. I think it probable that, owing to the very low
character of the solid product obtainable by the lime method, a con-
siderable portion of it would have to be got rid of in some other
way than as manure ; whilst the remainder would command a very
low price, and its use would be confined \vithin a very limited range
of carriage. The advantages of the plan, in a remunerative point
of view, would therefore chiefly depend on the return from the use
of the clarified liquid for the purposes of irrigation. This clarified
Uquid would, no doubt, enormously increase the growth, particu-
larly of grasses, to which it might be applied ; but its effects would as
certainly be less than before the removal of the solid matters,
which, when separated, have in themselves so little money value.
The chief point to decide would therefore be, whether, provided
irrigation be adopted, there would be sufficient sanitary advantages
to set against the increased cost, in dealing with a disinfected,
rather tihan with a crude sewage, for that purpose.

Upon the whole, keeping in view the great practical difficulties
in the way of profitably applying the valuable matters of sewage
for agricultural purposes, and looking, therefore, rather to the
imperative necessity of cleansing our towns, almost at whatever
cost, I feel that the most important step towards progress will be
made when the public mind is sufficiently disabused of the present
exaggerated notion of the agricultural value, in a practical point
of view, of highly dilute sewage matter. At the same time, I believe
that the third and fourth suppositions here referred to, deserve a
thorough experimental examination, before either the great and
entirely unremunerative cost of the first, or the probable risks of
the second method, be had recourse to.

J. H. GILBERT, ph.d., f.cb.
Habpenden, St. Albans,

June 16, 1857.

EXPERIMENTAL INQUIRY

INTO

IE COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE ANIMALS
FED AND SLAUGHTERED AS

HUMAN FOOD.

J. B. LAWES, Esq., F.R.S., F.C.S.,

AND

J. H. GILBERT, Ph.D., F.C.S.

(ABSTRACT,)

'•"w the Pboceedinos of the Royal Society, June 17, 1888.]

LONDON :

'TKTBD BY TAYLOR ft FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEBT STREET.

1858.

^PRINTED BY DUNN ft OHIDGEY, l»»-7, KINGflLAND ROAD, N.E.

1889.

EXPERIMENTAL INQUIRY

INTO THK

COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE ANIMiLS FED AND

SLAUGHTERED AS

HUMAN POOD.

%.FTBB alluding to the importance of the chemical statistics of
ziutrition in relation to physiology, dietetics, and rural economy, and
explaining that the branch of the subject comprehended in the pre-
ient paper is that of Animal Composiiiony the authors proceed in
ihe first place to state the general nature of their investigations, and
>he manner in which they were conducted.

To ascertain the quantitative relations, and the tendency of deve-
lopment, of the different parts of the system, the weights of the
entire bodies, and of the several interaal organs, also of some other
separated parts, were determined in several hundred animals — oxen,
aheep, and pigs.

To determine the ultimate composition, and in a sense the proxi-
cnate composition also, of oxen, sheep, and pigs, and to obtain the
resalts in such manner that they might serve to estimate the pro-
bable composition of the Increase whilst fattening, was a labour
obviously too great to be undertaken with a large number of ani-
mals. Those selected were — a fat calf, a half -fat ox, a moderately
fat ox, a fat lamb, a store or lean sheep, a half fat old sheep, a fat
Qiheep, a very fat sheep, a store pig, and a fat pig.

It is to the methods and the results of the analysis of these ten

^knimals, to the information acquired as to the quantitative relation of

^ihe organs or parts in the different descriptions of animal, and their

"Mrelative development during the fattening process, and to the appli-

^cation of the data thus provided, that the authors chiefly confine

tihemselves in the present paper.

The analyses of the ten animals were plannodL U> dieXj^rmixi^ >^^

actual and per-centagc amounts — of water, of mineral matter, of
total nitrogenoas compounds, of fat, and of total dry substance — ^in
the entire bodies, and in certain individual and classified parts of
the animals. The water, and mineml matter, were for the most part
determined in each internal organ, or other separated part. But, to
confine the labour within reasonable limits, and to facilitate as far as
possible the perception of the practical and economic application of
the results, the other constituents enumerated are given in —

1st. The collective "ciircass" parts ; that is, the frame with its
covering of flesh and fat, which comprise the most imix)rtant por-
tions sold as human food.

2nd. The collective " oflFal " parts ; including the whole of the
internal organs, the head, the feet, and in the case of oxen and
sheep, the pelt and hair or wool.

3rd. The entire animal (fasted live-weight).

Referring first to the composition of the ^^ collective carcasn -

parts,'' it appeared, comparing one animal with another, that there -=^=j
is a genenil disix)sitiou to a rise or fall in the per-centage of mineral ^ /
matter J with the rise or fall in that of the nitroyenous comftounds. — ^'.

In fact, all the results tended to show a prominent connexion be -^•-

tween the amount of the mineral matters and that of the nitrogenonss2t-«Ts
constituents of the lx)dv.

Comimring the relative proportions of fat, and nitrogenous com — «^t-
poumiSy in the respective ** carcasses," it appeared that, in everyg""JTy
instance excepting that of the calf, there was considerably more ofr^i^^o^
dry fat than of dry nitrogenous compomids. In the carcass of
the store or lean sheep, there was more than 1^ time as muc
fat as nitrogenous suUtance ; and in that of the store or lean pig"^^ ^>
twice as much. In the carcass of the half-fat ox, there was (me-^^^-*^
fourth more fat than nitrogenous matter ; and in that of the half '^^-^''*
fat sheep, more than twice as much.

Of the fatter animals, the carcass of the fat ox oontained %^^^i
times, that of the fat sheep 4 times, and that of the veiy
sheep 6 times as much fat as nitrogenous substance. Lastly,
the carcass of the moderately fat pig, there was nearly fi tiiiieB
much fatty matter as nitrogenous compounds.

From these facts.it may be concluded, that in GarcaaBes of ozea
reputed good condition, tYier^ m\\ «fc\iom \» >«» \»VaEL twice Mt

nncli, and frequently nearly 8 times as much dry fat as dry nitrogenous
substance. It may be presumed, that in the carcasses of sheep
ihe fat will generally amount to more than 8, and frequently to 4
[or even more) times as much as the nitrogenous matters; and finally,
that in the carcasses of pigs killed for fresh pork, there will seldom
be as little as 4, and in those fed for curing more than 4 times as
Dduch fat as nitrogenous compounds.

The fat of the bones constituted but a small proportion of that of
Lhe entire carcasses ; whilst the nitrogen of the bones amounted to
A considerable proportion of the whole.

It appeared, that whilst the per-centage (in the carcasses) of both
mineral and nitrogenous matters decreased as the animals matured,
that of the fat very considerably increased. The increase in the
per-centage of fat was much more than equivalent to the collective
iecrease in that of the other solid matters, — that is to say, as the
inimal matures, the per-centage in its carcass, of total dry substance
—and especially of fat — much increases.

The carcass of the calf contained 62^ per cent., that of the lean
heap 57jrd per cent., that of the lean pig 55jrd, and that of the
lalf-fat ox 64 per cent, of water. In the carcass of the fat ox
here were 45^ per cent., in that of the fat lamb 48§rds per cent.,
Q that of the half -fat old sheep 49§rds per cent., in that of the
at sheep 39f rds per cent., in that of the very fat sheep only 38
ler cent., and in that of the moderately fattened pig only 88^ per
ent. of water. The bones of the carcasses contained a lesspropor-
ion of water than the collective soft or edible portions.

It is inferred, that the average of carcasses of well-fattened oxen
irill contain 50 per cent., or rather more, of dry substance : that
iihose of properly fattened sheep will contain more still — say 55 to
50 per cent. ; those of pigs killed for fresh pork rather more than
diose of sheep ; whilst the sides of pigs fed and slaughtered for
curing will be drier still. Lamb-carcasses would seem to contain a
smaller proportion of dry substance than those of either moderately
httened oxen, sheep or pigs. Their proportion of bone was also
csomparatively high. Veal appeared to be the moistest of all. The
carcass of the calf experimented upon, though the animal was con-
sidered to be well fattened, contained only 87| per cent, of dry
substance. Its proportion of bone was also higW \XvdSi m ^\:i:j <^\
tbe other animala.

Next as to the oomposition of the collective offal parte (exclading
the contents of stomachs and intestines), the results showed that
in every case the per-centage of nitrogenous substance was greater,
and that of the fat very much less, than in the collective carcass parts.

In oxen and sheep, the pelt, hair or wool, hoofs, stomachs, and
intestines, taken together, contained a large proportion of the total
nitrogen of the offal parts. The portions of the nitrogenous offal
parts of these animals generally used for food, are, the head-flesh
with tongue and brains, the heart, the Uver, the pancreas, the
spleen, the diaphragm, and sometimes the lungs. In the pig, the
proportion of the nitrogenous offal generally eaten, is greater than
in the other animals ; but its proportion of fat is generally also
greater.

With the higher per-centage of nitrogenous substance, and the
less per-centage of fat, in the collective offal parts, they had in-
variably a less per-centage of total dry substance, and therefore more
of water, than the collective carcass parts.

From the composition of the entire bodies of the animals analysec^i
it is estimated, that of mineral mattery the average amount in stom^^
or lean animals, will probably l)e, in oxen 4^ to 5 per cent.yin si
8 to 3^ per cent., and in pigs 2^ to 3 per cent. As an average
mate for the mineral matter in fattened animals, the results in:
cated 3^ to 4 per cent, in the live-weight of calves and oxen, 2^ to
2| per cent, in that of sheep and lambs, and 1^ to 1} per cent. ^
that of pigs.

Of total nitrogenotis compounder there were in the fasted li^
weight of the fat ox 14^ per cent., in that of the fat sheep 12^
cent., in that of the very fat one not quite 11 per cent., and in
of the moderately fattened pig about the same, namely, 10*87
cent. The leaner animals analysed contained from 2 to 8 per
more nitrogenous substance than the moderately fattened ones.

The Fat formed the most prominent constituent of the dry ^
solid substance of the entire animal bodies. The fat calf aloff:'^
contained less total fat than total nitrogenous compounds. Of t>l^
other professedly fattened animals, the entire bodies of the bit ^^
and fat lamb contained about 30 per cent., the entire body of t#lv
fat sheep 85^ per cent., that of the very fat sheep 45} per oenLySH'
that of the moderately fat pig 42^ per cent, of dry fat.

The average compoB\tj\oii oi \i\ivi ^\t. vc!lL\\EA^& vssos&sA^ ^ \» to

fittened, sho¥Fed, in round numbers, 3 per cent, of mineral matter,
12^ per cent, of nitrogenons oompoonds, and 88 per oent. of fat, in
Iheir standing or fasted live-weight.

All the experimental evidence conspired to show, that the so-
oalled ^^ fattening " of the animals, was properly so designated.
Daring the feeding or fattening prooess, the per-centage of the col-
lective dry substance of the body considerably increased ; and the
ftttty matter accumulated in much larger proportions than the nitro-
genous compounds. The increase itself, must therefore show a
leas per-centage of nitrogenous substance (and of mineral matter
abo), and a higher one of both fat and total dry substance, than the
whole body of the fattened animal.

The knowledge thus acquired of the composition of animals in
different conditions of maturity, was next employed as a means of
estimating the composition of the increase gained in passing from
one given point of progress to another.

To this end, the composition of the animals analysed in the lean
ooadition, was applied to the known weights of numbers of animals
of the same description, assumed to be in a similar lean condition ;
and the composition of the fat animals analysed, was in Uke manner
i4>plied to the weights of the same series of animals after being
Cattdied. Deducting the amount of the respective constituents in
the lean animals, from that of the corresponding constituents in the
&t ones, the actucU amount of each constituent gained was deter-
mined. The weight of the gross increase being also known, its
estimated per-centage composition was thus a matter of easy calcu-
lation. The composition of the increase of 98 fattening oxen, 849
fattening sheep, and 80 fattening pigs (each divided into numerous
lots), was estimated in the manner indicated ; and as a control,
a statement is given of the composition of the increase of the single
analysed fat pig, which, at the time it was put to fatten, corre-
q)onded in weight and other particulars very closely with the one
analysed in the lean condition.

It is concluded, that the increase in weight of oxen^ taken over
six months or more of the final fattening period, may be estimated
to contain from 70 to 75 per cent, of total dry substance ; of which
60 to 65 parts will be fat, 7 to 8 parts nitrogenous substance, and
Itoli mineral matter.

On the Slime plan of calculation, the final increase of j*A«p,
feeding hberally during several months, will proljably consist of 75
per cent., or more, of total dry substance ; of this, 66 to 70 parts
will be fat, 7 to 8 parts nitrogenous compounds, and perhaps 1^ part
mineral matter.

The increase oipigs, during the final two or three months of feeding
for fresh pork, may be taken at 70 to 76 per cent, total dry sub-
stance, 65 to 70 per cent, fat, 6 to 8 per cent, nitrogenous substanoe^
and less than 1 per cent, of mineral matter. The increase over the
last few montlis of high feeding, of pigs fed for curing, will doubtless
contain a higher per-ceutage of botli fat and total dry substance, and
a lower one of both nitrogenous compounds and mineral matter, than
that of the younger and more moderately fattened animal.

As a general result, it appears that about fths of the gross increase
in live-weight, of animals feeding liberally for the batcher, will be
dry or solid matter of some kind. About f rds of the gross increase
will be dry fat ; only about 7 or 8 per cent, of the gross in
(and scarcely more than ^V^h of the total dry substance) will
nitrogenous compomids ; and seldom more than 1^, and frequent!
less than 1 per cent, mineral matter.

In the case of most of the sheep, and of all the pigs, the oom
position of whose increase was estimated, the amounts of min
matter, of nitrogenous compounds, of non-nitrogenous organic sn
stance, of total diy substance, and sometimes of fat, which we:
consumed during the fattening period, were determined ; so that tb
means are at command for studying the quantitative relation of tb
constituents estimated to be stored up in the increase, to those oon
sumed in the food which produced it.

Taking first the proportion of each class of constituents stored
for 100 of the same eonsumedj it is concluded, that in the case
sheep, Uberally fed on a mixed diet of dry and succulent food,
increase of the imimal will perhaps generally carry off — ^lesa than
per cent, of the consumed mineral matter, somewhere about 5 per cent --^
(varying according to the proportion in the food) of the consimieS
nitrogenous compounds, and about 10 parts of fat for 100 non-nitrt^-^
genous substance in the food ; and lastly, that for 100 of ooUeotiFtf
dij substance of food oonsxmied, there will be, in sheep, about 8 oT
9 pertB of dry noatter in mcreafie «tora^\r^.

The food of the fattening pig contained a much smaller proportion
of indigestible woody fibre than that of the sheep ; and it appeared
that the pig appropriated to its increase a much larger proportion oi
the organic constituents of its food than the sheep. The average of
the estimates for pigs, showed about 17 parts of dry substance of
increase stored up, for 100 of collective dry matter of food con-
sumed. For 100 of non-nitrogenous organic constituents in food,
about 20 parts of fat were stored up. Of nitrogenous compounds,
when the food consisted of about the usual proportions of the legu-
minous seeds and cereal grains, from 5 to 7 or 8 parts were stored
up for 100 consumed. When the leguminous seeds predominated,
the proportion of the consumed nitrogen stored up was less ; and
when the cereal grains predominated, it was greater. The estimates
showed, that on the average of the cases, there were 4 or 5 times as
much fat stored up in increase, as there was of fatty matter supphed
in the food. There was obviously, therefore, ^farmation of fat in
the animal body.

Reckomng the amount of the respective constituents of increase
stored up, for 100 of the collective dry substance of ihe food con-
sumed^ the general result was as follows : — It appeared, that of the
about 9 parts of dry increase, in sheep liberally fed on com or oil-
cake and succulent roots, for 100 of dry food consumed, about 8
parts were non-nitrogenous substance, that is, fat. There was, there-
fore, only about 1 part stored as nitrogenous and mineral matters
taken together. The average of the estimates showed the produce
of 100 of the collective dry substance of the consumed food of sheep
to be — about, 0*2 part of mineral matter, 0*8 part nitrogenous
compounds, and 8 parts fat, stored up ; leaving therefore about 91
parts to be expired, perspired or voided.

Taking the average of all the estimates of this kind relating to
pigs— of the 17^ parts of dry increase for 100 of dry matter of food
consumed, about 15| parts were estimated as fat, rather more than
l^rd part nitrogenous substance, and an insignificant amount as
mineral matter. On this plan of calculation, therefore, there would
appear to be, in the case of fattening pigs, only from 82 to 88 parts
of food-constituents expired, perspired, or voided, for 100 of the
collective dry substance of food consumed.

It is obvious that the ultimate composition of the d]:^ ^\v!(>Ri^\asi<^
of increase mnst be very different from thafc oi ^<& \^^ ^ ftrj ^so^

stance oonsumed. This is strikingly illustrated in the case of the
fat. In most of the experiments with pigs, the fatty matter in the
food was determined. On the average of the cases it amounted to
less than ^th as mach as was estimated to be stored np in the in-
crease of the animals. There was obviously, therefore, ^fmrmatUm
of fat in the bodt/y from some other constituent or constituents of the
food. Supposing the fths or more of thestored-up fat which must
have been formed in the body to have been produced from starchy
it was estimated that it would require 2^ parts of starch to contri-
bute 1 part of produced fat. Accordingly, it would appear that a
much larger proportion of the consumed dry matter is, as it were,
directly engaged in the production of the dry fatty increase, than is
represented by the amount of the dry increase itself.

Thus, taking the average of the cases in which the fatty matter
in the food of the pigs was determined, it was estimated that 17*4
parts of dry increase were produced for 100 of dry matter of food
oonsumed. Of the 17*4 parts of dry increase, 16*04 are reckoned
as fat. But there were only 3'96 parts of ready-formed fatty matter
supplied in the food. At least 12*08 parts of fat must therefore
have been produced from oDher substances. If from starch, it would
require (at the rate of 2^ parts of starch to 1 of fat) 30*2 parts of
that substance for the formation of the 12*08 parts of produced
fat. The ready-formed fat and the starch, together, thus supposed
to contribute to the 16*04 parts of fat in the increase, would amount
to 84*16 parts out of the 100 of dry matter of food consumed. But
there were, further, 1*86 part of nitrogenous and mineral matters
stored up in the increase. In all, therefore, 85*52 parts out of the
100 of gross dry matter consumed, contribuied, in this comfiara-
tively direct manner, to the production of the 17*4 parts of gross
dry increase.

According to the illustration just given, it appears that there was
pretty exactly twice as much of the dry substance of the food, in-
volved in the direct production of the increase, as there was of diy
increase itself ; hence, instead of there being, as before estimated, 8^
to 88 parts of the consumed dry matter expired, perspired, or
voided, without as it were being directly involved in the prodoctioa
of the increase, it is to be inferred that, in the sense implied, only
Bbout 65 parts were so expired, ipere^Vt^, ox ^q\AsA.

It having been thus found tYvaV, \i^ Iw VJWb >i«^^ ^^Ks^RseosftL ^

Ihe aoKd increase of the so-called fattening animals is really fat
iUetf^ — as moreover, it is probable that, at least in great part, the
fieit formed in the body is normally derived from starch, and other
non-nitrogenons constituents of the food — and since the current
fattening foods contain such a very large amount of nitrogen com-
pared with that eventually retained in the increase — ^it can hardly
be surprising that, contrary to the usually accepted opinions, the
comparative values of our staple food-stuffs are much more nearly
measurable by their amount of digestible and assimilable non-nitro-
genous constituents, than by that of the digestible and assimilable
nitrogenous compounds.

In order to determine the relative development of the several
organs and parts in different descriptions of animals, and in animals
of the same description in different conditions of growth and matu-
rity, the weights alive, and of the separate internal organs and some
other parts, of 16 calves, heifers and bullocks, of 249 sheep, and of
59 pigs were taken.

It appeared that in oxen the stomachs and contents constituted
about 11 J, in sheep about 7 J, and in the pig only about 1^ per
cent, of the entire weight of the body. The amounts of the intes-
tines and their contents stood in the opposite relation. They
amounted in the pig to about 6^, in the sheep to about 3^, and in
the oxen to only about 2| per cent, of the whole body. These facts
are of considerable interest, when it is borne in mind that in the
food of the ruminant there is so large a proportion of indigestible
woody fibre, and in that of the well-fed pig a comparatively large
proportion of starch — the primary transformations of which are
supposed to take place chiefly after leaving the stomach, and more
or less throughout the intestinal canal.

Taken together, the stomachs, small intestines, large intestines, and
their respective contents, constituted, in oxen more than 14 per cent.,
in sheep a little more than 1 1 per cent., and in pigs about 7^ per
cent. With these great variations in the proportion in the different
description of animals, of these receptacles and first laboratories of
the food (with their contents), the further elaborating organs, if we
may so call them (with their fluids), appear to be much more equal iu
\^m proportion in the three cases. This is ftpptomwaX^^ *^fisaafe5»X«s^

in the fact, that taking together the recorded per-oentages of
" heart and aorta," '* lungs and windpipe," " liver," " gall-bladder
and contents," '* pancreas," " milt or spleen," and the " blood,"
the sum indicated is for the oxen about 7 per cent., for the sheep
about 7^ per cent., and for the pigs about 6f rds per cent. Exclu-
ding from this list the blood, which was more than ^rd of a per cent.
lower in amount in the pigs than in the other animals, the sums of
the per-centages of the other parts enumerated would agree even
much more closely for the three descriptions of animal.

With regard to the influence of progression in maturity and fatness
of the animal, upon the relative development of its several parts, the
results showed, that the internal organs and other offal-parts pretty
generally incrpnsed in actual weighty as the animals passed from the
lean to the fat, or to the very fat condition. The per-ceniage pro-
portion to the whole live-weight, of these offal-parts, as invariably
dlminisJml as the animals matured and fattened. The carcasses, on
the other hand, invariably increased, not only in actual weight, but
in proportion to the whole body.

The conclusion is, that in the feeding or fattening of animals, the
apparatus which subserves for the reception and elaboration of the
food does not increase conmiensurately with those parts which it is
the object of the feeder to store up from that food. These parts are.
comprised in the " carcass" or frame- work, with its covering of flesh
and fat. Of the carcasses which thus constitute the greater part of
the incixiase, the nitrogenous portions increase but little, whilst the
fat does so in very much larger proportion. Of the internal parts,
again, it is also the/^^ which increafies most rapidly.

The maturing process consists, then, in diminishing the propor-
tional amount in the whole body, of the collective muscles, tendons,
vessels, fleshy organs, and gelatigenous matters — ^the motive and fono-
tional, or so to speak, working parts of the body — the constitaents of
which alone, can increase the amount, or replace the tranaformed
portions, of similar matters in the human body. It consists, forthWy
in increasing very considerably the deposition of fat — one of the
no/i-flesh-forming, but most concentrated of the respiratory and fat-
storing constituents of human food.

It is, then, in our meat-diet^ of recognized good qnality, to wbUti
is generally attributed btxcVi Ok T^\at>v7^\^ \^>s^ftA9h'farming capacity

that we caref nlly store up such a large proportion of rw/i-flesh-f orm-
ing, but concentrated respiratory material.

One of the most important applications which can be made of a
knowledge of the composition of the animals which constitute the
chief sources of our animal food, is to determine the main points of
distinction between such food and the staple vegetable substances
which it substitutes or supplements in an ordinary mixed diet.

By the analysis of some of the most important animals fed and
slaughtered as human food, it was found that the entire bodies ^ even
when in a reputed lean condition, may contain more dry fat than
dry nitrogenous substances. Of the animals " ripe " for the butcher,
a bullock and a lamb contained rather more than twice, a moderately
fat sheep nearly three times, and a very fat sheep, and a moderately
fat pig, about four times as much dry fat as dry nitrogenous matter.
Of the professedly fattened animals analysed, a fat calf alone con-
tained rather less fat than nitrogenous compounds.

It was estimated, that of the whole nitrogetious substances of the
body, 60 per cent, in the case of calves and oxen, 50 per cent, in
lambs and sheep, and 78 per cent, in pigs, would be consumed as
human food. Of the total /«/ of the bodies, on the other hand, it
was supposed, that in calves and lambs 95 per cent., in oxen 80 per
cent., in sheep 75 per cent., and in pigs 90 per cent, would be so
applied.

Assuming the proportional consumption of Dhe fat and nitrogenous
compounds to be as here estimated, there would be, in the fat calf
analysed 1^ time, in the fat ox 2| times, in the fat lamb, fat sheep,
and fat pig nearly 4 J times, and in the very fat sheep 6^- times as
much dry fat as dry nitrogenous or flesh-forming constituents con-
smned as human food.

It would perhaps be hardly anticipated, that in the staple of our
meat-diet, to which such a high relative flesh-forming capacity is
generally attributed, there should be found such a high proportion
of non-flesh-forming to flesh-forming matter as above indicated.
The result of such a comparison as present knowledge permits in
regard to the same point between the staple of our animal food and
the more important kinds of vegetable food, will certainly not be
less surprising.

Of the staple vegetable foods, wheat-flour bread Ss^^ ^\^»8b\» vcL^ik^

couutry, the most important. It will be interesting, therefore, to
contrast with this substance the estimated consumed portions of the
analysed animals. To this end, some assumption must be made as
to the relative values (on the large scale), for the purposes of re-
spiration and fatHstoring, of the starch and its analogues in bread,
and of the fat in meat. It is assumed that, in round numbers, 1 pari
of fat may be considered equal to 2^ parts of starch in these respects..
If, therefore, the quantity of fat in the estimated consumed portions
of the analysed animals be multiplied by 2*5, it is brought to what
may be conveniently called its '^ starch-eqtUvdlent ;*^ and in this way,
the Meat and the Bread can be easily compared with one another,
in regard to the relation of their flesh-forming, to their respiratoij
and fat-forming capacities.

Reckoning the amount^^ay 1 per cent.— of fat in Bread itself
(and it probably averages not more than ^ per cent.), to be equal to
2^ parts of starch, and adding this to the amount of the actual starch
and allied matters which it on the average contains, the calculation
gives — assuming this starch-eqiUvalent to represent specially the
respiratory and fat-forming, and the nitrogenous substances the
flesh-forming matter — 6*8 parts of respiratory and fat-forming, to 1
of flesh-forming material, in Bread,

Taking the relation of the one class of constituents to the other,
in the estimated total consumed portions of the animals assumed to
be in fit condition for the butcher, there was only one case — that of
the fat calf — in which the proportion of the so measured respiratory
and fat-forming, to the flesh-forming capacity, was in this our meat-
diet, lower than in Bread. In the estimated total consumed portions
of the fat ox, the proportion of the starch-equivalent of non-flesh
forming matter to one of nitrogenous compounds, was 6*9, or
higher than in Bread. In the estimated consumed portions of
fat lamb, the fat sheep, and the fat pig, the proportion was mo:
than 1^ time as great as in Bread ; and in those of the extra
sheep it was more than twice as great. Taking the average
the 6 cases, there were nearly 10 parts of starck^uivalmt to 1
nitrogenous compounds, against 6*8 to 1 in Bread. In the half-:
ox, and the half -fat old sheep, neither of which were in the conditioi^
of fatness of such animals as usuaUy killed, the relation of the Btard^
equivalent to the nitrogenous compounds (assuming (mty Uie auM
proportion of the total fail aa )»&iot^ \a\)^ ^aXftT^^'vrai^ voL^SM^fooiMr

oondderably, and in the latter slightly, lower than in Bread, namely,
as 8-88 to 1 in the half-&t ox, and as 6*28 to 1 in the half-fat old
sheep.

It will perhaps be objected, that, when animals are so far fattened
as to attain the relations above stated, the feeder is simply inducing
disease in the animals themselves, and frustrating that which, it is
considered, should be the special advantage of a meat-diet, namely,
the increase in the relative supply of the flesh-forming constituents
in our food. It cannot be doubted, however, that in animals that
would be admitted, by both producer and consumer, to be in only a
proper condition of fatness, there would be a higher relation of non-
nitrogenous substance (so far as its respiratory and fat-forming capa-
city is concerned), to flesh forming material, in their total consumed
portions, than in the average of our staple vegetable foods. It may
be true, that with the modem system of bringing animals very early
forward, the development of fat will be greater, and that of the muscles
and other nitrogenous parts less, than would otherwise be the case ;
but it is certain, that if meat is to be economically produced, so as to
be within the reach of the masses of the population, it can only be
so on the plan of early maturity. Nor will it be questioned, that the
admixture with their otherwise vegetable diet, of the meat so pro.
duoed, is in practice, of great advantage to the health and vigour of
those who consume it.

It is true that individual joints or other parts, as sold, will fre-
quently have a less proportion of fat to flesh-forming matter than,
according to the above supposition, will be consumed. Some fat
will also be removed in the process of cooking. But this portion
will generally still be consumed in some form. And where fresh
meat is bought, so also are suet, lard, and butter, which either add
to the fatness of the cooked meats, or are used further to reduce the
relative flesh-forming capacity of the collaterally consumed vegetable
foods.

It would, indeed, appear to be unquestionable, that the influence,
on the large scale, of the introduction of animal food to supplement
our otherwise mainly farinaceous diet, is to reduce, and not to in-
crease, the relation of the nitrogenous or peculiarly flesh-forming, to
the non-nitrogenous constituents (reckoned in their respiratory and
fat-forming capacity), of the food consumed.
That, neverthelass, a diet containing a doe \fto^Tt\OTi qH ^sKvssa^L

food is, for some reason or other, generally better adapted to meet
the collective reijuirements of the hmnan organism than an exclu-
sively bread or other vegetable one, the testimony of common ex-
perience may be accepted as sufficient evidence. Whatever may
prove to be the exact explanations of the benefits arising from a
mixed animal and vegetable diet, it is at any rate pretty clear, that)
independently of any difference in the physical, and perhaps even
chemical relations of the nitrogenous compounds, they are essentially
connected with the amount, the condition, and the distribution of
the fafy in the animal portions of the food.

Fat is the most concentrated respiratory, and of course fat-storing
material also, which our food stuffs supply. It cannot be doubted
that, independently of the mere supply of constituents, the condi-
tions of concentration, of digestibility, and of assimilability, of our
different foods, must have their share in determining the relative
values, for the varying exigences of the system, of substances which,
in a more general, or more purely chemical sense, may still justly
be looked ujx)n as mutually replaceable.

By the aid of Chemistry, it may be established, that, in the admix-
ture of animal food with bread, the relation (in respiratory and fat-
forming capacity) of the non-flesh-forming to the flesh-forming
substances, will be increased ; — and further, that in such a mixed diet,
the proportion of the non-flesh-forming constituents, which will be
in the concentrated form, so to speak, of fat itself^ will be consider-
ably greater than in bread alone. Common experience also testifies
to the fact of advantages so derived. It remahis to Physiology to
lend her aid, to the full explanation of that which Chemistry and
common usage have thus determined.

O B S E R VAT IONS

ON THE

RECENTLY-INTRODUCED

ANUFACTURED FOODS FOR AGRICULTURAL

STOCK.

By J. B. LAWES, F.R.S.

^•^ ■••''«- ''.^' '"■ ' • ^■■-^\x>.^ •-^'.'^•^.^,x^ ■\.^\^\.'^^'y,^^y

LONDON :
PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,

AND CnABINO CROSS.

1858.

;.PBINTED BY DUNN & CHIDOEY, 155 & 157, KINGSLAND ROAD, N.E

1889.

FBOM THE
JOURNAL OF THE BOTAL AORICULTUBAL SOCIETY OP ENOLAM),

VOL. XIX., PART I.

MANUFACTURED FOODS FOR AGRICULTURAL

STOCK.

In common with other Agriculturists I have been invited, by
advertisements in the papere, by placards on the walls, and by
circulars containing numerous testimonials from distinguished
persons, to employ certain manufactured foods in the feeding of
the animals on my farm. These foods frequently cost from 40s.
to 50s. per cwt. Taking, for those for which it is given, the pub-
lished average prices for the 6 weeks ending July 17th, 1 cwt. of
the following stock foods would cost as under : —

1 owt. barley

ya OSuCS ••• ••• ••• •••

jj PyftilQ ••• ••• ••• •••

•ft l/v^S ••• ••• ••• ■••

%j XwUVXUS ••• ••• ••• •••

II 01Xv&K6 ••• ••• •• •••

II XtJUO%?w A ••• ••• ••• ••«

1 1 utt y ••• ••• ••• •••

The manufactured foods thus cost, weight for weight, 4 or 5
times as much as the most nutritive of the ordinary stock foods
on our farms.* Very undeniable evidence of the superiority of
the former should therefore be reijuired, to induce the farmer ex-
tensively to employ them. But it is rather strange that among
the numerous testimonials in general terms, no evidence based
upon exact comparative experiment, showing actual weights of
food consumed and increase in live-weight obtained, has been
brought forward in favour of these costly foods; nor does a re-
ference to the circulars give much insight into their composition.

We do, however, in one circular, find the report of a Professor
of Chemistry, stating that the food sent to him for analysis con-
tained,^ besides nitrogenous and mineral matters, upwards of 50
per cent, of respiratory matter. It is furiher added, that if given
to cattle in the proportions stated in the prospectus they must
thrive. In reference to the above statement of composition, it
may be observed, that it would apply almost equally well to
any of the substances, except the hay, in the foregoing list of or-
dinary foods, which cost only about one-fourth or one-fifth as
much.

* Of coarse the relation will vary with the market prices ; but the prices per
ewt, can at any tims be easily calcalated for the purpose of the compari(<oii.

4 Mamifacturpd FooiU for Afjrirvltnral Stock.

Tlic following; is the result of lui analysis in the Rothanistcd
lalwratory, by Mr. Segelckc, of one of these foods. A practical
trial of the same food will Ixj noticed further on.

ff SVnSf ••• ••• ••■

12-86

Nitrogenous sabstonce

lOiil*

Fatty matter

r,-22

Starch, Sugar. &c. ...

6:>-97

Woody fibre

K-60

Mineral matter

3-94

10000
* Nitrogen 2*45 per cent.

Indeixjndently of the slight colouring with turmeric, an£
flavouring with cumin, anise or other of the stimulating an~
c-4inninative sclhIs used in cattle medicine, which these foods
frc<|uently exhi])it, the constituents its here stated, could be sup-

j)lied by a mixture of Mrley meal • with some of the legnminousr ms>
seeds enumerated, and oil-cake or linseed. Such a mixture^^i^^ei
according to the prices quoted, could be prepared for about one^=^c-
fourth the price of the manufactured cattle-iooa.

These foods are recommended to be used in comparativcl ^ -sh
small proportion to the total food consumed. The animals havi» — ^J,
therefore, still to rely for the bulk of their nourishment upon or «-__ir-
dinary food ; and it is stated that, with the use of these mannfa^^^ritc-
tured foods, the quantity of corn may l>e reduced to about ou jx. jjc-
half ; and that coai'se and comparatively innutritions mattev^ ^=2ns
such as bran and chopjK'd straw, will, by the admixture, " be
rendered pilatable and nutritious.

Xow, l>ran and chop|Ki<l stniw contain a large proportion of

woody fibre ; which, though recjuircd for bulk by the nimimv^^^nt
animals, |)asses through their Ixxlic^s in a finely-divided 6ta^=::LitiS
but otherwise almost unchanged. More or less of the solu" -^We

matters are extracted from such fiK)d during its passage ; but no

evidence liius been brought forward to show, that these mauuf"""3ac-
tnred fcKxls will so stimulate digestion, as either to extract nL^^on*
of its already-existing nutritious matters, or to render the wom t)dj
fibre itself, of the coiirse foods mentioned, more directly aenr^ ice-
able to the nourishment of the animals.

All animals roijuire in their daily f(XMl a given amount of
gestible and convertible constituents ; such as starch, suj
pectine, gum, oil, nitrogenous com|)onnds, and certain min.
matters. The j^roper amount of some or all of these mmf
(X)ntained in the food su])plied ; and no stimulant, or any o
device, ran sulKstitute that necessary amount, if the animal is
to decrease in weight. If, on the other hand, the am'mal
(|uircd to increase in weight, as in the case of our growing

* Jndian-com-meal is maoh uaed la aome of the roanafaotiired foo&jv.

Manufactured Foods for Agricultural Stock, 6

feeding stock, an additional amount of digestible and assimilable
constituents is required, beyond that which, under otherwise
equal circumstances, would keep the animal at a fixed weight.
In fact, no stimulus whatever, can substitute the supply of the
digestible and assimilable constituents in the food, whether it be
required for the purposes of labour, or of increase in weight. In
other words, the waste of matter in the body by respiration and
perspiration, the loss by urine and faeces, and the gain in weight
of fat, flesh, bone, &c., must all come from constituents actually
contained in the food.

Some years ago an extensive series of experiments was con-
ducted at Rothamsted, on the feeding of oxen, sheep, and pigs,
most of the results of which have been published, either in the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, or in the
Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science. These experiments showed how much the character
and productiveness of the foods employed depended upon the
amounts they supplied of certain digestible n^a-nitrogemus sub-
stances, such as starch, sugar, fatty matter, &c., certain nitro-
genou9 substances, such as albumen, &c., and certain mineral
matters. It was further found, that the ordinary or staple foods,
when in proper admixture with one another, supplied the several
constituents far more economically than when mixtures were
attempted to be made, in which some of the constituents (starch,
sngar, or oil, for instance) were employed in a comparatively
pare state ; that is, after having undergone an expensive process
of manufacture in their preparation. Indeed, unless fresn and
cheaper sources of food can lye discovered, so that we can be
supplied with starch, sugar, oil, &c., at a cheaper rate than
they are provided in hay, corn, oilcake, and the like, we cannot
hope economically to replace the latter by special manufactured
foods for stock.

It may be asked — if we can with advantage employ concen-
trated manufactured manures for our crops, wny cannot we also
economically employ concentrated manufacburea foods for our
stock ? The answer is plain. In using the concentractcd manu-
factured manure, containing a certain amount of nitrogen or phos-
phates, for example, the bulk of the crop is obtained from other
jtources — such as the atmosphere and water, not supplied by the
farmer*8 hand; the natural constituents existing in his soil, and
the residue from previous inanures and crops. The application
of a small quantity of ammonia and mineral matter will often
yield as great an increase of vegetable produce, as if 20 or 30
times the weight of farmyard dung had been employed. This is
not to be wondered at when it is considered, tliat by far the
greater bulk of the dung consists of water and other constituents
which the plant can obtain either from the air or the soiL We

Ma/wfactured Foods for Ayriadtural Stock.

thus get bj' tlie iise of concentrated manures, a much greater
weight of nicreased produce than there was of manure employed.
I'he case is very different in the supply of food to our stock.
The (juantity of the constituents returned in the sohd and liquid
excrements, and in the increase of the animal, must invariably
l)e very much less than was contained in the food consumed.
No concentration of constituents, nor any amount of supply of
some only, of those reijuired for the respiration^ the jmspiration,
the excrements^ and the inrrease, can enable the animal to obtain
a i>article of what is requisite for these, from any other source
than his food.

In the case of stock-foods, therefore, the scope for economical
manufacture or concentration is very limited. Among the
natural complex foods, hay may be said be be more concentrated
than stniw, and corn more concentrated than hay. Of the
individual non-nitrogenoas or so-called respiratory and fat-form-
ing constituents of food, fatty matter is very much more concen-
trated than starch or sugar. But our ruminant animals cannot
tlirive upon excliLsively concentrated food, even though it be so
in the limited degree in which it exists in corn. They require
a certain amount of the balky but innutritions woody fibre,
which they find already combined with other constituents in hay
or straw. Those animals such as pigs, which do not recjuire the
same projKirtion of woody fibre for their digestive oix^ratioiis, am
provided with a suitable combhiation of starch, sugar, oil, nitro-
genous substance, and mineral matters, already formed in com and-
other natural foods, far more economically than they could be suj)—
plied with them by the intervention of manufacturing processes.

There is, in fact, only one mmufajtured staple article of fot)d^
employed ])y the farmer with advantage on the large saile.^
This is oilcake. Even oilcake is not manufactured exclusively^
fur the pur|)uses of feeding : it is the residue of a process for^
obtaining oil, the value of which to a great extent meets tht?-
ci>st of the i)rodnction of the cake. The cake waa produce
Ijefore there was any demand for it as food for stock. It woul
continue to be produced if the farmer did not so employ it. I
l>rice as food is not regulatetl so much by the cost of production
as by what the farmer will give for it in CDmpetition with othe*^
articles. It m;iy Im mentioned, however, that many of th^-
ivceutly-in trod need manufactured foods cost four or five times a^
much, weight for weight, as our most nutritive oilcakes.

From all that has been said, it will bj clear that these iiewl^
manufactured foods cannot sutetitute any of the ncjessaiy cofm
stituenLs contained in our oixlinary stock foods any further tli&K
they themselves supply them. So far as the mere Bupplj ^^ ■
alimentary constituents is concerned, a mixture of liiiaced o^
oiloake, and coru-meal| can provide these at oue-fourth to oii.e —

Manufachired Foods for Agricultural Stock.

fifth the cost of the specially-made artificial foods. Such foods
cannot therefore be relied upon as staple articles. The virtues
which they really do possess over and above those which could
be secured at one-fourth to one-fifth the price, are confined,
therefore, to the action on the health and digestion of the ani-
mals, of the small amount of stimulating and carminative seeds
which they contain. In fact, so far, they are sauce or medicine,
rather than food. As such, they are likely rather to increase
than to diminish, the appe ite for further nutriment. Still, it is
quite possible that, if judiciously compounded, they may be of
service in keeping horses in a more healthy state of body, or in
aiding the digestive powers of weakly animals which do not
readily consume and thrive upon the ordinary foods, ft should,
however, be clearly understood by the farmer, that tliese manu-
factured foods cannot do away with the necessity for a given
amount of digestible and assimilable constituents in the col-
laterally-consumed ordinary food. There is, as yet, no exact evi-
dence to show that they can, even in their office of condiments
or medicines, enable the animals profitably to appropriate a
larger proportion than they otherwise would, of the constituents
of the other food they consume. That is to say, there is no
proof afforded, that with their use there is either a larger amount
of increase obtained for a given amount of food constituents
consinmed, or that a smaller amount of the food constituents
passes off unused and effete in the faeces.

Below are given the results of the practical trial of the food,
the proximate analysis of which has been already recorded. The
plan of the experiment was as follows : 6 pigs were selected and
divided into two lots of 3 each, the collective weights of the
respective lots differing from one another by only 2 lbs. To lot
Xo. 1 a mixture was given, composed of 9 par's barley-meal and
1 part bran. To lot No. 2 the same mixture of barley-meal and
bran was given, with the addition of 2 parts of the manufactured
food to every 10 parts of the barlev and bran mixture. The
food was in each case stirred up with hot water, and both lets
were allowed as much of their respective foods ns they chose to eat.
The results of this comparative experiment were iis follows : —

Description of F<od.

Number

PIg«.

Dnration

Exi>ori-

mont

(Days).

Original
Wolght.

Final
Weight.

Increase

Total
Pood
con-
sumed.

Foo«l
consumed
topnMiiee

10<) of
Increase.

Lot l.Nine parts Barlcj-mcal
one part Bran . . . . j

Lot S. Nine part* Barley-m-^aJ )
onepartBran,twopartf [
manufactured food ..)

3
3

2ft
28

lbs.
357

3fi5

lh«.
496

491

lbs.
139

139

lbs.
M7

556

393

4oe

8 Manufactured Foods for AgricuUnral Stock,

The amount of increase for a given qaantitj of food consumed
was in both cases good. It is obvious, however, that so far from
there being less total food consumed when the manufactured meal
was employed, there were 9 lbs. more of the mixture eaten when
one-sixth of it consisted of the expensive manufactured food ;
whilst the amount of increase in weight was exactly the same in
the two cases. In fact, the results are so nearly absolutely
identical that the difference cannot perhaps be fairly attribut<:'d
to any intrinsic difference in the character of the food. But ii

is, at any rate, clear that nothing was gained by adding to the

1 of its weight of ' "
about five times as much money.

barley-meal and bran, one-fifth of its weight of food, costing

The general observations that have ])een made above are,
then, fully borne out by the results of this experiment. In con-
clusion, I feel bomid to say, that I should require much clearer
evidence than any that has hitherto been adduced, t.o satisfy me
that the balance-sheet of my farm would present a more satis-
factory result at the end of the year, were I to give to each horse,
ox, sheep, and pig, a daily allowance of one of these costly foods.

Rofhamsted, Juhjy 1858.

London : Printed by William Clowi:s and Sons, Stamford 8trM»t

and Charing Croea.

Re-printed by Din^x 9t CaiooBT, 155 & W, KingaUad Boad, H.8

THE COMPOSITION

OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS.

THE COMPOSITION

»XEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS,

AND OF

THEIE INCREASE WHILST FATTENING.

. B. LAWES, F.R.S., F.C.S., & DR. J. H. GILBERT, F.R.&, F.C.S.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,

AND CHABINO CROSS.

1861.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Statement of the Objects and Plan op the Inquiby .. .. 3

Nitrogenous, Non - Nitrogenous, and Total Dry Substance,
Consumed — per 100 lbs. Live-weight per week — and, to
produce 100 lbs. gross Increase: —

Introductory observations 4

Exi)erimental results with Sheep and Pigs (Tables, pp. 6, 7) . . 5
Conclusions 8

Proportion, and Relative Development, of the different
Organs and Parts, of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs: —

Introductory observations 10

Distinctions between Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs (Table, p. 13) .. 11
Influence of maturity and fatness (Tables, pp. 14-19) .. ..12
Influence of the character of food (Table, pp. 22, 23) .. ..21

Chemical Composition of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs: —

Statement of the plan of the experiments, &c. 25

Composition of the Carcasses (Table, p. 26) 28

Composition of the Offal (Table, p. 26) 29

Composition of the Entire Bodies (Table, p. 27) 30

Estimated Composition 6f the Increase of Fattening Oxen,.
Sheep, and Pigs : —

Explanatory observations 32

Composition of the Increase of Oxen (Table, p. 33) 36

Composition of the Increase of Sheep (Table, p. 34) .. ..36

Composition of the Increase of Pigs (Table, p. 35) 37

Summary — Composition of the Increase of Oxen, Sheep, and
Pigs (Table, p. 38) 38

CONTENTS.

V. — ^Relation op Constituents stored up in Incbeasb to those

CONSUMED IN FoOD, BY FATTENING AnIMALS : —

Explanatory observations 39

1. Mineral, nitrogenous, non-nitrogenous, and total dry matter,

stored up in increase, for 100 of each consumed in food,
by Sheep and Pigs (Tables, pp. 41, 42) 40

2. Mineral matter, nitrogenous compounds, fat, and total dry

substance, stored up in increase — and of matter^expired,
perspired, or voided — for 100 total dry substance consumed
(Tables pp. 46, 47) 45

3. Relation of the fat stored up in the increase, to the reiidy-

formed fat, and other constituents, consumed (Table, p. 50) 4H
General Conclusions 52

Summary enumeration op the RESin/rs: —

1. Food and Increase 53

2. Proportion of parts 54

3. Chemical composition of the animals 55

4. Composition of Increase 50

5. Kelation of constituents in Increase to constituents consumed 57
Conclusion oS

ON THE

COMPOSITION OF OXEN, SHEEP, AND PIGS,

AND OV

THEIR INCREASE WHILST FATTENING.

MoBE than ten years ago we commenced a series of articles in
this Journal, the expressed object of which was to elucidate the
chemistry of the feeding of animals, considered as a process for
the manufacture of meat and manure — and, as such, constituting
a highly important branch of the business of the farmer. It was
proposed to investigate experimentally —

1. The amount of food, or of its several constituents, consumed
— in relation to a given weight of animal tnithin a given time.

2. The amount of food, or of its several constituents, consumed
— to produce a given amount of increase in live-height,

3. The proportion, and relative development, of the different
organs, or parts, of fattening animals ; — their chemical composi-
tion ; — and the probable composition of their increase during
the feeding process.

4. The composition of the solid and liquid excrements — that is,
the manure — in relation to that of the food consumed.

5. The loss or expenditure of constituents, by respiration and
by the cutaneous exhalations — that is, in the mere sustenance of
the living meat and manure making machine.

The discussion of the fourth and fifth branches of the inquiry
here enumerated, must still be postponed to some future oppor-
tunity.

The third branch — namely, that relating to the composition of
the animals themselves, and of their increase whilst fattening —
constitutes the special subject of the present paper.

4 On the Composition of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs,

Before entering upon the consideration of these questions, we
shall give, by way of introduction, a brief summary of the facts and
conclusions bearing upon the first two, or preliminary points of
the main inquiry.

I. On the Amounts of Nitrogenous Compounds, of Non-
Nitrogenous Compounds, and of Total Dry Substance,

consumed — IN RELATION TO A GIVEN WEIGHT OF ANIMAL
WITHIN A GIVEN TIME — AND TO PRODUCE A GIVEN AMOUNT

OF Increase.

To acquire the necessary data relating to this branch of the
subject, some hundreds of animals — oxen, sheep, and pigs — were
supplied for many weeks or months consecutively, with given
quantities of food, of known composition ; and the weights of the
animals themselves were also taken, both at the beginning and at
the end of the experiments. For full particulars of the results,
the reader is referred to our detailed Reports, published partly in
the R. A. S. Journal,* and partly elsewhere.!

Table I. (p. 6) gives a summary of the results relating to
Sheep, and Table II. (p. 7) of those relating to Pigs.

In these Tables the organic substance of the food is only sub-
divided into the two main classes of — 1st, Total nitrogenous
substance ; and 2nd, Total non-nitrogenous substance. It is
obvious that this is a very imperfect classification of the con-
stituents of food.

The so-called ^^ nitrogenous substance," calculated from the
amount of nitrogen the food contains, must obviously be of very
different character, according to the description of the food. In
ripened products it will probably be available for the purposes of
the system in larger proportion than in unripened or succulent ones.
In unripened vegetable products a considerable portion of the
nitrogen often exists in a condition in which, if not injurious,
it is, to say the least, certainly not assimilable. Even in ripened
ones it may exist in very different degrees of digestibility and
assimilability.

Again, the so-called '* 7i(7n-nitrogenous substance " may include
cellulose (or " woody-fibre"), starch, sugar, or gum — all of which
have a very similar .chemical composition ; also various bodies of
the pectinc class ; and fatty matter.

* Journal of the Ro^al Agricultural Society of Eneland, toL x., part I;
vol. xii., part ii. ; vol. ziii., part i. ; vol. xiy., part ii ; and toI. xvi., part i.

t Keport of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, for 1851;
and for 1854.

atid of tlieir Increase whilst Fattening. 5

Recent investigations have demonstrated that a considerable
proportion of the more delicate cellulose of our current food-stuffs,
may be digested ; and so far as it is so, its value as a constituent
of food will probably range pretty closely with that of sugar and
of starch, fiut, a large proportion of the woody-fibre, included
under our term 7Km-nitrogenous substance, is passed by the animal
entirely undigested.

So far as can be judged, the pedine compounds have, weight for
weight, a somewhat less feeding value than either starch ot" sugar.

Lastly, for practical purposes, a given amount of fatty matter
in food, may be considered as equivalent to about 2i times its
weight of starch, or sugar.

From the above considerations it will be obvious that, in
reading the actual figures given in the Tables, regard must be
had to the known character (according to the description of the
foods employed) of the substances classed respectively as " nitro-
genous," and " non-nitrogenous." In our fuller Reports, already
referred to, we have called attention to this point ; and so far as
the experiments with pigs are concerned, the food of which
contains comparatively little indigestible woody-fibre, we have so
fiir distinguished between the different /MW-nitrogenous constituents,
as to give \he fatty matter^ and the non-nitrogenous substance not
fat, separately.

After the above explanatory observations, we proceed, very
briefly, to call attention to the more general conclusions to be
drawn from the results.

It is seen that, in all cases comparable on the point, there is
much more of uniformity of amount within the columns of non-
nitrogenous substance, and total dry svbstancey than in those of
the nitrogenous substance. This is the case both in regard to the
quantities consumed — to a given toeigkt of animal within a given
timcy and to those consumed — to produce a given amount of increase
in live-weight. The deviations from the general regularity in the
amounts are, however, much less than the actual figures show,
when due allowance is made, both for those of the non-nitrogenous
constituents of the food which would probably be indigesti-
ble and pass through the animal unchanged, and also for the
different respiratory and fat-forming capacities of the portions
which are digestible and available for the purposes of the animal
economy.

It must further be remembered that, even if all due allow-
ance, such as is here supposed, were made, the amounts must
still cover all variations — whether arising from differences in
the external conditions of the experiments, from individual jiecu-
liarities in the animals themselves, from the different amounts

. 6 On the Compontion of Ozen, Sheep, and Pig*,

Taelb I.— Amounts of NitrofKnous Compounils, Non-Nitnigeiioas Compounds, and Tot
Dry Siibstniice, consumed — (1) per 100 lbs. live-weight, per week ; (2) to proiiui
100 lbs. grusa Incrfaea Shebp.

UESCBIPTION OF FOOD.

N»»- N£J ^

Series 1.— 5 Sh«p in

»:bp^U.^.

iSi;;;

l=s{

iin

7*4

«—

™

"■"

»'»

■OA

!-»

hr-tats 2.— S Sh«p in etch pen, 19 vtAa.

fe;;;;!l»'ii

ili

Mtiiu 9'ca

.°T

-"''!_

_„

.'"

Scries 3. — 5 .Shwp in cncli pm, 10 weeks (tio timitnl fuods).

■

(1 '*^^''„*'}'"'"°*l"i'»'''"«l'"-

T-B

Il'ti

IMD

«~"' • ■ • •

l-«

B-M

11-4II

..u

™

'■■

Series i.~

aShwpin

(Hch pen, ID weeks.

Hunsold.

1-0)

i-«iJ

10-08

111

IS-tll

SERIES S

-DiOemi

Br«dsofSI«ep.

,o,^^_^_j

ll'tS

Li-n

'i!-a

■M

n
■I

"™

9-41

11-41

l«-g*

113

™

and of their Increase whilst Fattening, 7

Table II. — ^Amounts of Nitrogenous Compounds, of Non-nitrogenous Compounds,
and of Total Dry Substance, consumed-— (1) per 100 lbs. live-weigbt, per week ;
(2) to produce 100 lbs. gross increase.

PiQS.

Noi.

DESCRIPTION OP FOOD.

Consamed

'per 100 lbs. IWe-weight,

per week.

Oiren in Limited
Quantity.

Given ad libitom.

Nitro-

Non-

nitro-

genou* I Kenoos
Sub- Organic

stance.

Sub-
stance.

Total
Dry

Sub-
stance

(In.
eluding
Mineral
Matter).

Consumed

to produce 100 lbs.

gross Increase.

Nitro-
genous

Sub-
stance.

Non-
nitro-
genous
Organic

Sub-
stance.

ToUl
Dry

Sub-
stance

(in.
eluding
Mineral
Matter).

Non-
Nitro-
genous
Sub-
stance
tol
Nitro-
genous
Sub-
stance
in Food.

Series 1 . — 3 Pigs in each pen, 8 weeks.

3
4
5
6

9
10

None

Indian-meal . . .

Bran

Indian-meal and bran

None

Bean and lentil meal
Bran ......

Bean and lentil )

meal and bran . J
BeMii and lentil meal
Indian-meal . . .
Bean and lentil meal, I '■ \

and Indian-meal . /I'
Bean and lentil meal,

each ad libitum . .

Bean and lentil
meal ....

Indian-meal

Bran

Indian-meal, bran.

8*84
8* 13
7'7l
6*87
2'9l
4*55
3'95

5*20

5* 19
S'90

4*96
6*12

Means

5*69

17*6
19*8
17*8
20*0
19*3
21*1
22*5

22*1

18*7

17*0
20*1

28*0
29*3
27*1
28*2
22*5
26*3
27*1

28*3

20*1
23*7

23*4
27*2

19*1 25*9

138

114

161

121

198
130

114
107

112

275
278
372
351
378
337
332

309

523
620

391
350

376

437
412
•wo
496
452
420
401

396

770

785

540

474

511

1*99
2*43
2*31
2*91
6*61
4*65
5*69

4*26

2*61

4*77

3*43
3*28

8*36

Series 2. — 3 Pigs in each pen, 8 weeks.

3
4
ft
f
7

9
10

None

8 lbs. barley-meal
1 lb. bran ...
3 lbs. barley-meal, 1

lb. bran ...
None .....
U lb. bean, and li lb.

lentil meal . .
1 lb. bran . . .
U lb. bean. M lb.)

lentil noeal, and 1 /

lb. bimn ... )
Mixture of 1 part bran, 2 parts barlev-meal,

and 3 parts bean and lentil meal, ad hb. . .

Duplicate of pen 9

Mixture of I part bran. 2 parts bean and lentil

meal, and 3 parts barley-meal, ad lib. . .
Duplicateof penU

■Bean and lentil
meal ....

Barley-meal

Means

6*69
8*29
8*73

14*5
22*6
20*0

22*2
32*1
80*2

146
137
152

317
874
848

484
538
585

6*80

20-6

28*6

125

878

525

3*91

23*6

28*8

885

461

5*17

20*0

26*0

352

459

4*06

23*2

28*2

378

460

4*64

17*2

22*7

100

372

491

}6*65

20*6

28*4

117

362

501

7*08

21*9

30*3

110

342

473

J5*86

21*4

28*4

320

425

6*02

22*1

29*4

321

425

6*15

80*6

27*9

107

354

480

2*17
2*72
2-29

3-04

6-08

8*87

5*71

3*71
>3*I0
>3*66

3*38

Series 3. — 4 Pigs in each pen, 8 weeks.

»{

Dried cod-fish .

/ Bran and Indian-meal

• * * \ (equal parts).
Ditto . . • ' Indian-meal . . .
Dried cod-fish— bran and Indian-meal (equal

parts)— each ad lib.

( Mixture of 2 parts bar-

Dried ood-fish
Ditto

ley^meal, and 1 part
i bran . .
Barley-meal

Means

}5*30

16*6

23*7

104

328

464

3*13

4-86

16*6

22*1

287

888

8*80

J5*7l

19*5

27*0

108

368

511

3*41

>5*96

21*0

88-9

346

476

3*53

5*76

25*7

33*0

367

458

4*47

5*42

19*9

27*0

887

458

8*62

Series 4. — 3 Pigs in each pen,

10 weeli

25*8
25*7
28*6
29*0

:s.

830
329
351
820

I
2

8
4

Lentils and btan • .
Ditto . .
, Ditto . .
Lentils, bran, sugar, ai

Sugar

Starch

Sugar and starch . .
id starch, eadi ad lib.

4*89
4*90
4*85
5*70

19*9
20*0
82*9
22*4

81
81
74
82

427
425
438

417

4*07
4*07
4*71
3-90

Means | 5*09

21*3

27*3

[ m

AJEl

I V\^

8 On the Composition of Oxen^ Sheepy and Pigs^

stored up according to the suitableness of the foods, as well as
from the many other uncontrollable circumstances which must
always interfere with any attempts to bring within the range
of accurate numerical measurement, the results of those pro-
cesses in which the subtle principle of animal life exerts its
influence.

On the other hand, with a general uniformity in the amounts
of available /ion-nitrogenous constituents consumed (by a given
weight x)f animal within a given time, and to produce a given
amount of increase), those of the nitrogenous constituents are
found to vary, under the same circumstances, in the proportion
of from 1 to 2 or 3. Nor (excepting in a few cases^ can this
great variation be attributed to difference in the condition of the
nitrogenous substances in regard to digestibility and assimila-
bilify.

The pig requires much less of mere bulk in his food than either
the ox or the sheep. Whilst the fattening food of the latter
animals is principally composed of grass, or hay or straw, and
roots, with a comparatively small proportion of cake or com, that
of the pig comprises a larger proportion of com, and its dry
substance consists, weight for weight, of a much larger pro-
portion of digestible or convertible constituents (starch, sugar,
<Scc., and highly-elaborated nitrogenous compounds), and con-
tains much less of effete woody-fibre, than does that of oxen and
sheep.

Notwithstanding the generally richer character of his food, the
fattening pig is found to consume a much larger quantity of drj
substance in relation to his weight than the sheep. He at the
same time yields a larger amount of increase in proportion to the
dry substance of the food consumed.

For practical purposes it may be assumed, that sheep, when
fed liberally upon good fattening food composed of a moderate
proportion of cake or corn, a little hay or straw chaff, together
with roots or other succulent food, will yield, over a con-
siderable period of time, 1 part of increase in live-weight for
from 8 to 10 parts of the dry substance of such mixed food. The
quantity of dry substance of food required will vary between
mese limits, according to the exact description and quality of
the food, and other circumstances. But 9 parts of dry sub-
stance of food for 1 of increase in live-weight may be taken
as a very fair average result for sheep, with good food, and good
management.

In the case of liberally-fed pigs, 1 part of increase in live-
weight should be obtained from 4 to 5 parts of the dry substance
of the fattening food.

and of their Increase whilst Fattening, 9

In reference to the point just referred to, it may be considered
that oil-cakes and foreign com will, on the average, contain rather
more than six-sevenths, and home-grown corn, hay, &c., rather
less than six-sevenths, of their weight of " dry substance." In the
same way, it may be reckoned that the commoner sorts of turnips
will, on the average, contain about one-twelfth, swedes about
one-ninth, mangolds about one-eighth, and potatoes about one-
fourth, of their weight of " dry substance."

Sheep (and oxen also), fattening on food of recognised good
quality, may give a maximum amount of increase for a given
amount of dry substance of food, although the latter contain as
much as 5 or even 6 parts of Tzan-nitrogenous substance to 1 of
nitrogenous compounds. The latter proportion is about that in
which the two classes of constituents exist in the dry substance
of the cereal grains ; but in these the proportion of the non-
nitrogenous substance which will be indigestible woody-fibre,
will be less than in the mixed diet of sheep and oxen. Hence,
supposing the relation of the total Tum-nitrogenous to the nitro-
genous substance to be the same in the two cases, the proportion
of the really digestible non-nitrogenous substance will be some-
what less in the mixed diet of these animals so fattening, than
in the average of cereal grains.

When pigs are fattened almost exclusively on com, they do not
appear to require more than 1 part of nitrogenous to about 5 or
6 parts gross non-nitrogenous substance, to yield the maximum
amount of increase in proportion to the dry substance of food con-
sumed. But, since there is a less proportion of indigestible
woody-fibre in their food than in that of sheep and oxen, it
would appear that they can give a maximum amount of increase,
with even a somewhat smaller proportion of the nitrogenous to
the digestible /kwi-nitrogenous constituents, in their fattening
food.

The above proportions are those upon which the respective
animals will frequently attain the greatest rate of increase
during the later stages of feeding. With these the increase
will, however, probably be very fat. In the earlier stages of
growth and feeding, a somewhat higher relation of nitrogenous
constituents is desirable, if not even essential, for the best pro-
gress of the animal.

It should here be particularly observed, that taking into con-
sideration the cost of many of the foods which are high, com-
pared with that of those which are low in their percentage of
nitrogenous substance, and also the higher value of the manure
from those which are rich in nitrogen, it is almost invariably the
most profitable for the farmer to employ stock-foods containing a

10 On the Composition of Oxen, Sheep j and PigSj

larger proportion of nitrogenous constituents— even up to the end
of the feeding process — than is essential for the maximum rate
of increase.

From a view of the whole of the evidence bearing upon this
branch of the subject, it may be concluded, that when stock-foods
contain a certain amount of nitrogenous substance below which
few of our current fattening food-stufis are found to go, it is their
supply of available wow-nitrogenous, rather than that of their nitro-
genous constituents, which rules both the anumnt of the food cor-
sumedy and the increase in live-^weight produced.

When it is considered how large is the share of influence which
the demands of the respiratory process must have ujx)n the amount
of food consumed, it can hardly excite surprise that, at least
consumption^ should be chiefly regulated by the supply of com-
pounds rich in carbon and hydrogen^ rather than nitrogen.

That the amount of increase should also bear a closer relation-
ship to the amount of the 72on-nitrog^nous than to that of the
nitrogenous constituents of food, will doubtless appear to be incon-
sistent with the generally-adopted notion of the highly nitrogenous
character of animal bodies, and especially with the also frequently
implied assumption that in the current food-stufls the proportion
of nitrogenous substance is likely to be often insuflicient to supplj
the amount required for the production, or restoration, of the nitro-
genous compounds of the animal organism.

The questions here arise — wh^t is the compositicm of the
animals the farmer feeds? — what the composition of their in-
crease whilst fattening ? — and what the relation of this to that of
the food consumeil ?

II. On the Proportion, and Relative Detelofbobnt, op

THE different OrGANS AND PaRTS, OF FATTENING OZEN,

Sheep, and Pigs.

Before discussing the chemical composition of the animal bodies,
and of their increase, it will be well to consider the proportion
which the various organs (or other more arbitrarily separated
parts) bear to the entire body, in the different descnriptions of
animal, and also the proportion, and tendency of development,
according to the condition of growth or fatness. In fiict, it is
the judgment of the character of the slaughtered itn^'"^!* io
these respects which determines, in the view of the practised
eye, the quality and value of the meat that the feeder has
produced.

To obtain the ex})erimental data relating to this faranch of the

and of their Increase whilst Fattening, 11

subject, 2 calves, 2 heifers, and 14 bullocks, 1 lamb and 249
sheep, and 59 pigs, have been operated upon. The plan
adopted was, to determine the live-weigkt just before slaughter-
ing; and, as soon as possible afterwards (so as to lessen the
error arising from evaporation) to determine the weight of the
carcasSy of each of the internal organs^ and of some other separated
parts.

The animals are classified according to description, breed, con-
dition of maturity, or kind of food ; and, in the Tables which
follow (III.-IX. inclusive, pp. 13 to 19), the average results
only (both actual and percentage), are given.

For further details the reader is referred to the * Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society,' Part II., 1859, where both
the actual weights, and the percentage proportion, of the separated
organs and parts, of each of the 327 slaughtered animals, are
recorded.

A few words may first be offered directing attention to the
more prominent points of distinction between the different de-
scriptions of animal — oxen, sheep, and pigs — in regard to the
amount, and the proportion in the whole body, of their respective
organs and parts. These are illustrated by the average results,
recorded side by side, in Table III., respectively of 16 heifers and
bullocks, of 249 sheep, and of 59 pigs.

The proportion of the stomachs and their contents constituted
in the oxen about 11^, in the sheep about 7^, and in the pig only
about 1 J per cent, of the entire weight of the body. The pro-
portions of the intestines and their contents stand in the opposite
relation. Thus, they amounted to about G^- per cent, in the pig,
to about 3^ per cent in the sheep, and to only about 2^ per cent,
in the oxen.

These distinctions are of considerable interest, and are per-
fectly intelligible when taken in connection with the fact that in
the food of oxen and sheep there is so large a proportion of indi-
gestible woody-fibre, and in that of the well-fed pig so much less,
and at the same time a comparatively large proportion of starch —
the primary transformations of which are supposed to take place
chiefly after leaving the stomach, and more or less throughout
the intestinal canal.

Taking together stomachs, small intestines, large intestines,
and their respective contents, the entire bodies of the oxen yielded
an average of rather more than 14 per cent., of the sheep a little
more than 11 per cent., and of the pigs about 7^ per cent. With
this great variation in the proportion of the receptacles and first
laboratories of the food, with their contents, the further elaborating

12 On the Composition of Oxem, Sfteep^ and Piffs.

organs (if we may so call them), wijth their fluids, appear to be
much more equal in their proportion in the three cases.

This point is approximately illustrated in the fact that, taking;
together the recorded percentages of " heart and aorta,** ** longs
and windpipe," " liver," " gall-bladder and contents," " pancreas,"
" milt or spleen," and the " blood," the sum is for the oxen about
7 per cent, for the sheep about 7^ per cent., and for the pigs
about 6 1 per cent. If from this list we exclude the blood, which
was more than one-third of a pcr-cent. lower in the pig than in
the other animals, the sums of the percentages of the other parts
enumerated, would agree still more closely for the three descrip-
tions of animal.

Lastly, in regard to the distinctions between the difierent de-
scriptions of animal : Of the masses of internal ^' loose fat," with
its connecting membrane, the oxen yielded on the average about
4J per cent, the sheep about 7 J per cent, and the pig little more
than IJ per cent. The pig, therefore, with its much less propor-
tion of alimentary organs, has also a much less proportion of the fat
which surrounds them. With regard to the much larger amount
of this sort of fat indicated in the sheep than in the oxen, it may
be remarked that a considerable proportion of the sheep which
contribute to these recorded averages were, compared with the
oxen, in more than a correspondin^egree of 'matnrEy and fatne-.

A rapid survey may next be taken of the relative development
of the several organs and parts, as the animal prog^saes in ma^
turity and fatness.

An examination of the Tables (I V.-IX.) shows that the intenial
organs and other ^' offal " parts pretty generally incretue in actual
weight as the animal passes from the store or lean, to the &t or
to the very fat, condition ; but that (excluding the loose fat,
which increases not only in actual weight but proportionally)
their percentage proportion in the whole body as invariably dimir
nishes as the animal matures and fattens.

The carcasses^ on the other hand, invariably increase both in
cutual and in percentage amount, as the animals mature.

The above remarks apply generally to oxen, sheep, and pigs ;
but the data relating to the sheep comprise the most complete
gradationary series for their illustration.

Thus, the average actual weights per head of the collective
stomachs and intestines, and their contents, increased from about
13| lbs. in 5 store or lean sheep, to about 15f lbs. in KXifai sheep^
and to about 16i lbs. among 45 very fat ones. Again, the hetft
and aorta, the lungs and windpipe, the liver, the gall-bladder and
contents, the pancreas (sweetbread), the milt or spleen, and the

blood,

and of their Inaease whilst Fattening.

Table IU.

. — Mean Actual Weights (lbs. and ozs.), and Mean Percentage Proportion
entire Bodies, of the different Organs and Farts of different Descriptions
[mal.

Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs.

: ! i

FTION OF PABT8.

achs

*nts of stomachs \

id ▼omit) .. ../'

fet I

I intestines and con- ) !

Its fl

e intestines
itents
tinal fat

t and aorta .
tfat .. .

and I

m and windpipe

)

bladder and con>

>ts

reas (** sweetbread")!
nas-gland (*' heart- (I

*i") /I

is about the throat)

throBtbread") ../;

or spleen . .

ler
i

lie

, or skin and wool
and hoofs

hragm ("skirts")
ellaneous trimmings

(Eal " parts . .

Meui Actiua Weights Obe. and on.)

Means of
IS Heifers

and
Bullocks.

lbs. on.
35 13*9

92 12*8

23 2.9

17 12-0

13
26

0
1

Means of
249 Sheep of

different

Breeds,

oondltioDs of

Fatness,

Age, &C.

Means of
69 Pigs.

lbs. 018.

3 12*3

7*0
5*4

10-6

3-8

3-6

12-8

13-3

15*7

10-7

5-5
13-9

2
3

0
0
1
6
2

10*4
1-8
7-6

15-2
2*2

10-4
7*8
8-3
1-6
5-4

1-6

3-3

lbs. OSS.
I 2 10-4|

1
4

8
2

2-3

8-4

5-7
5-6

0 9-6

9-1

10-1

4-5

2*1

6-6

0 9*1

0 . 0-8

40 ■ 0 4-7

120

10-7 ^

9-5 !
0-6 '
1-9 !
20 !
15-3

. .. 439

. .. 680

eyaporation, error! I ^
hing, &C. .. .. J

140
12-0

0
0

8l|
0-4

3-4
30

0 2-5

0 71

1 0-2

0 2«9t

0 8-8

61
91

11-5 35
12-5 176

7-Ui 0 2*2

4-6*
5-3*

2-1

;ht after fasting .. 1141 1*1 153 10-2 212 12

Mean Peropntage Proportions In the
Fasted Live-Weights.

Means of
IS Heifers

and
Bollocks.

3-17
8 34
202
1-60

1-24
2-24

0-50
0-31
0-81
4-01
1-31

0-09

009

0-06

003
0*16

0-05

006

2-69

7-49
1-77
0-10
0*41
0-30

38-85
59-31

1*84

Meaniiof

249 Sheep of

different

Breeds,

ooodltions of

Fatness,

Age, &C.

2*45
4-98
4-63
1-61

1-92
2*04

0-43
0-32
0-99
3-97
1-52

0-06

014

0'16
0.03

2-93 I
n-73

014
0*12

40- 17
59-74

0-09

100-00 I 100*00

Means of
69 Pigs.

1-28

0-54
2*20

4-04
1*06

0-29

• •

0-76
3-63
1-57

0-06

0-19

0-14

0*08
0-21

0*48

0-08t

0*26

16-87*
82 •.17*

0-56

100-00

of the Pigs, the head (with brains), feet« and tall, are Included with carcass, and not with the offal, as
animals,
ivantltles relate to the toes only. X Yfx^ oi 'vois!^ >xi!(X'Q&K&'^ia^

On the Composition of Oxeuy Sheep^ and PigSy

Table IV.

Mean Actual Weights (lbs. and ozs.) of the different Organs and Parts of-

Calves, Heifers, and Bullocks.

DESCRIPTION OF I'ARTS.

/^Stomachs

Contents of stomachs
Caul fat

Small intestines and contents
Large intestines and contents
Intestinal fat

Heart and aorta

Heart fat

Lungs and windpipe

Blood

Liver

Gall-bladder and contents
Pancreas (" sweetbread ")
Thymus gland (** heartbread " )
Glands about the throat (" throat-
bread")

Milt or spleen

Bladder

Penis

Brains

Tongue

Head

Hide

Feet and hoofs . .

Tail

Diaphragm (" skirts ")
Miscellaneous trimmings

Total "OflEal" parts

Carcass

Loss by evaporation, error in weighing, \
&c /

Liye- weight after fasting

Means of

2 Fat
Oalvea.

lbs.
3
4
2
5
3
2

17
5
0
1

84
158

ozs.

6-6
12*1

9-2

5-5

4
14

2 Fat I
Heifers. j

} 0 e I

13 9-5

7'
5'
1-

2
5
2
5

0-6
3-5

351
474

250 12

lbs. o». I

32 0 I

70 12

23 4

15 4

12 2

26 3

0 8

21 7

65 14

14 10

0 12-8

4 9-5

4 6

6-5
10

8 8«0 27 13'5*

853 14

14 Fat
Bullocks.

lbs.
36
95
23
18
13
26

5
3

9
47
15

0
0

0
0
0

452

710

oca.

6 7
15-2

2-7

1-7
10*0

5-8

14*4

6'9

lO-l

15-2

1*6

0-5

1*6
11
5-5

1 15*3

9*2

7-5

12*1

32 0.5

4*3

13
1-3
3*2

14*3

13-6
3-1

19 0*8

1182 1*5

2 Heifm

and
UBullocki

lbs.
35
92
23
17
13
26

5
3
9
45
14
0

1
0
0

Ob.

13-9

12-8

S-9

li-0

7-0

10*C

S»

3.6

12-8

13*3

15-7

10-7
5-5

I 13-9

0 9*1

0 12

30 10-7

9'5
0-1
H
9

439 14't
680 U

SO M

1141 1-1

• This amount Includes the wombs of the Heifers, one of whidi wu with Gal£

and of their Increase ichibt Fattening. 15

Table V.
Actual Weight* (lbs. and ozb.) of the different Organs and Parts of—

Sheep.

Ueuiuf

[OS OF PARTS.

Stura
■UndLnL ur

IDft Sheep

<BSb«p

IlKCddl,

Knllaifd.
II Y«i oM.

tsUuu
Itoimaiwp,

Fuodfc
Vol old.

.VS.

BiHdiuid
Sludn ut

43"

.VISS.

•right .. ..
[hi. Ulffaitcd

99 0 156 O-a ; Wi 7-5
93 0-8 145 5-3 19a 0-3

llH. oa.
Ii4 l-i
148 9-1

ng'is-a

170 12-2

11« OM.

107 7-2
103 15-4
153 10- S

iclw .. ..
bt .. ..

iul to

: aod aorta ..
;f.t .. ..
(and windpipe

>I>dder" Bild]
'oi ("■weet-
U aboilt tlUl

sat (■■ ihTMt-

>rip1<«i ..

ind'hniA '.'.
llaneoiu Irim-1

•s> ■■ ■■;

a ll'S
6 1-5

i 115

1 2-B

0 71

0 4-9

1 IB
* 7-3
1 8-1

0 3*1

0 0-8

0 2-6

1) 0-9
3 5-9

13 1-8

0 41

3 9-8 4 1'9
G 8-5 ' 6 14-B

B 1-3 i 9 10-5

2 12 : 3 0-9

0 9-3 0 11

0 4-8 1 0 10'7

1 B-S 1 I 9'5
« 0-2 1 7 a-5

2 S-9 , 2 88
II 1-4 0 1-B
0 3-5; n 3-1

4 5-a 4 ia-3

18 9-8 20 0-9

0 3-1

0 3-11 0 3-0

3 13'6
9 9-9
6 9-7

2 4-7

3 a-3

3 24

0 11-4
U 9-6

i 0-6
0 1-9
0 3-4

0 3-6

49-7
18 4-5

3 11-2
6 7-T
9 1-1
2 4-3

4 5-6

0 ll-l

0 11-3

1 9

e 8-8

5 6-3

0 1-3
0 .T3

..
0 4-7

0 0-8
4 11-4

18 7-9
0 2-0

3 12-3
7 10-4

7 1-B
S 7-fi

a 15-8

3 a-a

0 I0'4

0 7-8

1 s-a

8 1-6

2 S-4

0 4-0

0 0-8

4 8-1

18 0-4
0 9-4

II 3-0

Wparu ..
wrigEiDe.&c"}

43 ia-0

49 ll-H
0 9-0

58 14-2 G8 121
B5 11-1 122 U'9
0 12-0 II .^-3

BO G-3

M 10-6

'! 'H

btafi<rfk.tinK

93 0-8

145 5-3 1 192 0-3

141 6-7

..,..

^vsvi W1.

On the Composition of Oxen^ Sheep, and Pigs,

Table VI.
Mean Actual Weights (lbs. and ozs.) of the different Oi^ans and Parte of-

PlGS.

DESCRIPTION OF PARTS.

Moderately Fattened on different dcacriptlona of Food. Means of

»Plgs.

Original weight
Final weight, uufasted
Fasted live-weight

Stomachs )

Contents of stomachs i

Caul fat

Small intestines and\

contents ..
Large intestines and t

contents ..
Intestinal &t, *' mud-

geon/' &c.

':)

Heart and aorta . .

Longs and windpipe . .

Blood

\ Liver

Gall-bladder and con-
tents

Pancreas (" sweet-
bread")

Milt or spleen

Bladder
Penis . .
Tongue
Toes .. ..
Miscellaneous
mings ..

Food:

Bran, with

llmit«d

Quantity

of Bean

and Lentil

Meal, or

Indian

Meal,

or both.

llw.
140
191
182

OZM.

12-5

12-4

12 Pigs.

Food:
Bean and

Lcntii

MeaUwitb

limited

Qoantlty

of Indian

Meal,
or Bran,
or both.

3
0
5

0
1

7
2

0*6
15-2
10-3

1-4

10-8

8-5

9*7

3-8

13-5

0 21

trim-

(

Total "Offal" parts.. ..
Carcass (including head)

with brains, feet, and tail))
Loss by evaporation, error)

in weighing, &c f

Live-weight after fasting . .

0
0

0
0
0
0

4-7

1-9

6-8

15-7

Ibi.
142
239
227

ozs.
9-4

16 Pigs.

Food:

Indian

MeaU wiih

limited

Quantity

of Bean

and I^entil

Meal, or

Bran; or

all ad Ub.

12Pig>i.

Iba.
143

ozs.
7-5

5*4 235 10*7

6-9

2 13
1 2

4 14-8

9 5*4

3 2-4

0
1
9
3

9-9
10*2

2
14^

234 12*7

2 11*4
1 5-2

3 14-9

7 10-8

3 3-6

0 10-4

0 2*1

0 81
0 6-4

0 51

35
146

6-1
7-5

0
0
1
0

31
81
0-3
3*3

0 11-8

1
8
3

9*5
0-4
5-6

0 1-7

Food:
Sogar, or

Starch,

or botb,
with

limited
Quantity

of ihan
and Lentil

Meal.

Ibfl. ozs.

95 5-3

185 4

177 6.6 1278 0

SPlga.

Food:

Dried

Cod-fish,

with

Indian

MeaU

or Bran

^nd Indian

MeaL

2Pig>.

Put to

Fe<>din

Store

COOditiOD,

and only

half
Fattened.

3Pi(H.

lbs. ozs.
163 13*3
287 13-3

Potto

Feedirtim

half Fat,

onbunr
Foul

as Uft,

and mo-
derately
Fattittd.

2 0-8
1 0-9

3 13-2

8 14-3
1 1-7

0
1
6
3

89
6*4
5-2
01

3 2-9

1 6-8

4 8*1

7 96

2 14*3

0 2*4

0 7-5 0 5
0 4*7 0 3-7

0
0
1
0

2*7

0*8

2-9

0
0
0
0

2*2

5-6

I.V2

2*3

0
1
8
3

iri

9*4
9*4
7

0 2*8

0 81
0 5*6

0 11-71 0 3*5

0
0
1
0

iba. OZS. . lbs. oa.

130 8 i135 10*:

180 0 181 %l^

170 8 !172 mpU

0 91

40 4*2 I 35 16-8
186 14*4.197 12-5

0 14*8

0 4*3

1 04

SO 11*4 1 37 10-4
144 9*5 1239 6

2 1*7

182 12*41227 6*9 234 12*7 il77 6*6

0 15*6

278 0

2 15-3

0 12*8

6 10

7 6

1 2*6

0 7*5

1 6-5
5 3*3

3 2*1

0 1*6
0 4-5

1 11-3

0 14*3
3 15i

5 10-3

1 8-2

0 8*1

1 12*3
5 12*7

2 101

0 2*4
0 5*1

0 4-6: 0 4*5

2*7
9*2
3-3
3

0 1-8
0 5*1
0 13*2

• •

0 9*3

0 2-6
0 fi-8
0 15*6

• •

0 10*4

31 10*2 . 27 3-8
135 9*5!l44 6-2

3 4*3

170 8

1 0-8

172 ItrS I

(tnd of their Increase whiht fattening.

Table VII.

Mean Percentage Proportion of the different Organs and Parts in the

Fasted Live-weight of —

Calves, Heifers, and Bullocks.

DESCRIPTION OF PARTS.

/Stomachs

Contents of stomachs . .

Caul fat

Small intestines and contents
Large intestines and contents
Intestinal hi

Heart and aorta

Heart fat ..

Lnngs and windpipe

Blood

Liver

Grall>bladder and contents

Pancreas ( " sweetbread *')

Thymus gland (** heartbread ")
Glands about the throat ("throat-
bread") .. ..

Milt or spleen ..

Bladder

Penis

Brains

Tongue

Head

Hide

Feet and hoofs

Tail

Diaphragm ("skirts")
^Miscellaneous trimmings

Total "Offal "parts

Carcass ..

Loss by evaporation, error in weighing,]
&c

Meaoaof

2 Fat
Calves.

1
I
I
2
1
1

37
89
03
13
30
13

0-60
0*08
1-32
4*68
1-67
0-05

0-67^
0*32

.^KS

0'15

5*46

6*94
2*18
0-13
0-44

33-54
63-13

3-33

100-00

2 Fat
Hdfers.

3-75
8-40
2-69
1-80
1-44
3-02

0*48
0-22
0-75
3-60
1-62
0-08

0-09
0-07
0*05

0-15
0-06

2-51

7-74
1-72
0*09
0-53
0-49

14 Fat
BullodcB.

41-25
55*58

3*17*

100 00

3- 09
8*33
1-93
1-57
1*21
2-12

0-50
0*32
0-82
4 07
1-28
0-09

0-09
0*06
0-03

017

0-05
0*04
0-07

2-71

7-46
1-78
009
0-39
0-27

38-54
59*84

1*62

100-00

2Hel1!?re

and 14

Bullocks.

317
8*34
2-02
1*60
1-24
2*24

0*50
0*31
0-81
401
1-31
009

0-09
0-06
0*03

016

0-05

0*06

2*69

7-49
1-77
0*10
0*41
0-30

38-85
59*31

1*84

100-00

* This amouit includes the wombs of the Heifers, one of which was with Oalt

On the Compotitwn of Oxen, iSAnp, and Pigt,

Mean i'orceutage Proportion of the different Oi^us and Parte in tho Faeted
Live-weight of —

ll».of

KI.«U«o».

(Shwp

^"^

lOeShtrp

«6h«p

6hwp.

»)5b4

oaidlllon.

FittOHil.

Fbu^.

dlltomt

thu

onlH

•landurd

AhootH

^^',7

t™*^

yI^.

iW"

['stoniachs

3'94

3-49

S'14

9.73

6' 16

3-61

6-83

*'«

Cnulfw

2- as

Small iuleatincs and contcnls . .

2-3S

Large mlestiues and oontentK ..

2-93

1-89

1-59

2-83

1.7S

I-B

Intealinal ful

1-S8

1-70

2-10

a -53

3-85

J-Cl

Heart and iiorla

0-4B

0-40

0-3fi

0-Bl

0-41

Ht-arlfut

0-20

0-35

o-«

0-42

O'M

1-17

1-(14

0-83

1-06

0-92

a-«

•s

i-ei

175

1-44

1-91

Gall-bladder and contentii . . . .

0-07

0'06

0-06

0-07

0-05

Pancreas (■' Eireetbread ") . ..

0-13

O'la

O-IO

0-lB

0-14

Glauds about the throat ( " throat-)
bread") J

0-06

Mill or Kpleeu

0'17

0-17

0-U

O'le

0 17

O'li

Bladder

0-Od

0-1)3

0-03

3-64

3-00

t'M

Skin

Wuol

u-a

Feet and hoofs

Diaphragm C-aklrt*-) .. ..

0'30

0-ia

D-M

O'lO

0M3

0-11

o-o:

u-a

Total" Offal "parlB

45 '55

40-52

85 78

43-84

4I)1T

53- «

59-97

64 'OS

66-85

M-N

X'»c"r"".°-™'.'°™":|

0-51

0-17

0-31

O-Il

O-d

10(1 ■1)1)

10-.00

10000

lOO.OO

100-00

11W«

and of their Increase whilst Fattening.

Table IX.

jn Percentage Proportion of the different Organs and Parts in tlie Fasted

Live-weight of —

Pigs.

9 Pigs.

Moderately Fattened
12 Pigs. 15 Piga.

on different deKriptiona of Food.
12 Pigs. 6 Pigs. 2 Pigs.

Means of

3 Pigs.

Food :

Food:

Put to

Bran, with

Bean and

Indian

Sugar, or

r>ried

Feed in

Feed when

ION OF PAKTS.

limited

Lentil

Meal, with

Starch,

Codfish,

Store

half Fat,

Quantity

Meal, with

limited

or both.

with

condition,

on same

Fattened

of Bean

limited

Quantity

with

Indian

and only

Food

I'igs.

and Lentil

Quantity

of Bean

limited

Meal,

half

as last.

Meal, or

of Indian

and Lentil

QuanUty

or Bran

Fattened.

and mo-

Indian

Meal.

MeaU or

of Bran

and Indian

derately

Meal.

or Bran,

Bran; or

and Lentil

Meal.

Fattened.

or both.

aU ad lib.

MeaL

kchs ..1
mts of Stomachs/

1-66

1-27

1-18

1-16

1-17

1-81

0-99

1*28

fkt

0-52

0-49

0-57

0*59

0-51

0-47

0-52

0*54

I intestines andj
itents . . /

3*05

219

1-69

2-15

1-66

3-98

2*36

2*20

e intestines and)
itents . . /

4-91

4-16

3-28

5-05

2*76

4-34

3-38

4-04

ttnalfat, **mad)
o," &c J

0*91

1-35

1-37

0-63

1-03

0-67

0-87

1*06

; and aorta

0-29

0-27

0-31

0-25

0-28

0-29

0*29

8 and windpipe

0*88

0-73

0-68

0-79

0-57

0-85

1-06

0-76

• • • ■ • •

3-97

4-08

3-43

3-59

3-11

3-04

3-37

3*63

1-55

1-71

1-43

1-70

1-26

1-87

1-56

1*57

>ladderand con-l
ts /

0-07

0-05

0-08

0-06

0-05

0-09

0*06

•eas (" sweet-1
ad") .. ../

0-18

0-22

0-20

0«18

0*19

017

O'lS

0*19

>r spleen

0*16

0-15

0'13

0-14

0-12

0*17

0-15

0-14

!er

0-07

0-09 1

0-07

0-08

0-06

0-10

0-08

0-23

0-22 ;

0-21

0-20

0-21

0-18

0-24

0*21

0-54

0-46

0-45

0-53

0.43

0-49

0«61

0-48

0«09

0-09 .

0*08

0-08

0-07

• •

0-08

Ilaneons trim-1
»g8 >

0*18

1
0-32

0-29

0*12

0-21

0-35

0-40

0«26

Sal'* parts ..

19-26

17-85

15-38

17-38

13*67

18-78

16*07

16-87

ncluding head)

ains, feet, and>

80-22

82-07

84*18

81*44

85-98

79-26

83*39

82*67

iporation, error)
It, &c f

0*52

0-08

0-44

1-18

0*35

1*96

0*64

0«56

100-00

100-00 :

1
1

100-00

100*00

20 On the Composition of Oxeriy Sheep^ and Pigs^

blood, all taken together, give an average adual weight per head
— for the five store sheep of 7i lbs., for the hundred fat ones of
Hi lbs., and for the forty-five very fat ones of 12J lbs. The rate
of increase in actual weight as the animals fatten is, therefore,
rather greater for these last-mentioned organs or parts than for
the collective stomachs and intestines, and contents. Still, they
decrease — though not so much as the collective stomachs, &c. —
in jx*rcent{ige to the whole body with the increase in weight and
fatness of the animals. Thus, the percentage of the heart and
other parts above classed with it is, for the average of the five
store sheep 8*44, for that of the hundred fat ones 7*71, and for
that of the forty-five very fat ones 6*55.

Of the internal parts, the loose fat alone increases in both
actual weight, and percentage proportion, with the progress <»f the
animals. It averages in actual weight — for the store or lean sheep
about 4J lbs., for the fat ones about 8} lbs., and for the very fat
ones about 14^ lbs. In percentage proportion it averages — for the
lean slieep 4 '52, for the ftit ones d*03, and for the very fat ones
7-44.

The results, as regards the collective or total ofTal parts, and
thi» total carcass pjirts, respectively, are as follow: — The total
offal parts increased in average actual weiglUs per head, from
42 J lbs. in the store or lean condition, to 58|lbs. in the^Ji^, and
to 68} lbs. in the very fat condition. The increase in actual
weight of the corresponding carcasses was much greater, namely,
from 49 J lbs. in the store^ to 85} lbs. in the fat^ and to nearly
123 lbs. in the very fat condition.

The result is, then, that although the collective internal organs
and other offal parts increase considerably as the animals fatten,
the so-called carcass or frame — with its muscles, membranes,
vessels, and fat — increases very much more rapidly.

It follows, of course, that there is a diminishing percentage in
the entire body of the total offal parts, and an increasing per-
centage of the total carcass parts, as the animals mature and fatten.
Thus, the percentage of the collective offal parts is, in round
numbers — for the average of the lean sheep 45*5, for that of the
fat ones 40*5, and for tiiat of the very fat ones 35*8. The per-
centages of the carcass parts were, on the other hand — for the
corresponding lean animals 53*4, for the fat ones 58*9, and for
the very fat ones 64*0.*

The practical importance of these facts will be better seen if
they are stated in another form. Thus, it follows, from the data

* It will he noticed that the sums of the corresponding oflSd and carean pailfi
here quoted, do not quite make up 100. The complementary tmovnu repreteat
the loss by evaporation, error in weighing, &c.

and of their Increase whilst Fattening. 21

involved, that of the increase from the lean to the fat condition 68*8
per cent, and of the increase from the fat to the very fat condition
7 9 "8 per cent, would be saleable carcass. It may perhaps be
estimated that 65 to 70 per cent, of the gross increase of oxen
and sheep, liberally fattening over a considerable period of time,
will be saleable carcass. Calculations of a similar kind in regarrl
to pigs, show that of their increase during the last two or three
months of liberal feeding, little less than 90 per cent (including
head and feet) may be reckoned as saleable carcass.

Again, the mean percentage of loose fat (caul, intestinal, and
heart together) in the fat sheep, as slaughtered, was only 6*03 ;
but the percentage in the increase from the store to the fat
condition would be 8*91. In the same way, though the average
percentage of loose fat in the very fat sheep was only 7*44, the
percentage in the increase from the fat to the very fat condition
would be 1217.

On the other hand, the percentage of the other offiil parts (that
is, excluding loose fat) was in the lean animals 41*03, and in the
fat animals 34*49 ; but the percentage of these collective parts in
the increase from the lean to the fat condition would be only 21*96.
Lastly, the percentage of the same offal parts in the very fat
animals was 28*34, whilst the percentage in the increase from the
^t to the very fat condition would be only 8*97.

From the few summary statements that have been adduced, it
is sufficiently obvious that, in the feeding or fattening of animals,
die apparatus which subserves for the reception, the transmission,
and the elaboration of the food, does not increase, so rapidly as
the saleable carcass or framework — with its covering of flesh and
fat — which it is the object of the feeder to store up from that
food. It will be seen, when we come to treat of the chemical com-
position of the animals, and of their increase, which of these two
main constituents of the carcasses — ihejlesh or the^crf — increases
the most rapidly. From the facts given in this section, it is
obvious that, of the internal, or " offal " parts, at least, it is ihefai
which increases the most rapidly.

The illustrations of the order of development of the different
organs and parts of fattening animals, given above, have been
drawn from the results obtained on slaughtering large numbers
of sheep, at different ages and degp'ees of maturity, without special
reference to the character of the food employed.

That the character of the fattening food — even within the
period of only a few weeks — has a marked influence upon the
character of the development, and consequently upon that of the
meat produced, is shown by a careful consideration of the results
relating to the slaughtered pigs, recorded in Tables VI. and IX.

Qn the Composition of Oxen, S/ieep, and Pigs,

Table X. — Amounts and Proportion of the Fat and of the Lean i^rts,

(Average of

GENERAL PARTICULABS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

Pien
N08.

I
2
3

5
6

8
IS

IS
14

Num-
ber of
Pig*.

8
3

3
3
3

3
3

DESCRIPTION OF FOOD.

Given in Limited Quantity.

Given ad lihitwm.

S lbs. bean and lentil meal

2 lbs. Indian com meal . .

2 lbs. bean and lentil meal. )
and 2 11m. Indian-corn meal y

'Bran

None

2 lbs. Indian-corn meal

lbs.bran > Bean and lenUI meal

2 lbs. Itran, and 2 lbs- In-
dian-com meal

2 lbs. In- 1
• • • J

None

2 lbs. bean and lentil meal
S lbs. bran

2 Ibit. bran, and 2 lbs. bean )
and lentil meal ... J

None

2 lbs. dried cod-fish . . .
2 lbs. dried cod-fiKh . . .

» Indian-corn meal

t Bean and lentil meal, In- \
\ dian-com meal, and bran J

/Bran and Indian-meal \
I (equal parts) . . . /

Indian-meal

Noo-
Nitrogen-
ousSnb*

Increaae 1 1\

stance to .for 100 Dry
I Nitro- I Substance
genous ' in Food.
SabKtanoel
in Food. |

PnCnL

apon 100 i^JSU
IWginal "ST

4*T7
3*43

r»

2*43

2*31

2*91

6*61
4*65
0*^

4*26
3*28

8-13
8*80

13*0
12*7

18*5

22-9
M*S

17*7

20*2

22*1
23*8
24*9

25*3
21*1

21*6
26*2

23-3

2r4

42*1

68*9
79-6
47*4

W-0

&l*S
67-0
74*5

80*3

51*1

ao*i

Means.

Pena9, 10, 11

.. 1>8.3,4

.. 5,6.7,8,)
13 . /

13,14 .

{Bran, with limited quantity of bean and lentil meal,l
or Indian-meal, or both j

[Bean and lentil meal, with limited quantity of Indian- 1
\ meal, or bran, or botli j

{Indian-meal, with limited quantity of bean and lentill
meal, or bran, or all j

{Dried cod-fish, with Indian-meal, or bran and Indian \
meal j

General Means

3*61
2*41
4*90
8*46

8*71

14-7
21-3
23-4
23*9

21*0

80-9
S8-7
«6*f
55*6

fii

n
r.n

M-4

59*7 sn

tffi
an

M-5

and cf their Iticreate whilst Fattening.

ively, in the Carcasses of Pigs fed on different descriptions of Food,
in each case).

IL WEIGHTS OF SEPARATED PARTS OF
CARCASS.

PERCENT.

IN TOTAL CARCASS.

lat Parts.

Total
Lean Parts:

i RiS;

Shoulders,
Shoulder-

bisdes,

Hnd, and

Feet.

Lossbr
Evapora*
tion, in.

lbs.ots.

ToUl
Carcass.

FktFuts.

Total
Lew Parte

rhitside
Fat, or
Flitch.

Total Fat
Parts.

Inside
Fat, or

"Flare"
(with

Kidneys).

Outside

Fat, or

;• Flitch."

Total
FatPsjts.

Shoulders,
Shoulder-
blades,
Head, and
Feet

Loss by
Evapora-
tion, &c.

Ibi. OSS.

lbs. oxs.

lbs. OSS.

lbs. oxs.

40 1

47 7

83 5

4 4

135 0

5-46

99-7

35*8

61*7

3*15

47 15

57 3

81 11

4 8

143 6

6*45

83-4

89*9

57*0

3*15

M A

65 11

90 13

4 8

161 0

6*45

34*4

40-8

56*4

8*80

m t

81 9

105 10

9 10

196 13

6*38

85*1

41*4

53*7

4*90

as 1

95 1

105 11

7 8

sns 4

6*84

89*4

45*6 ,

60*8

3*60

55 6

66 I

91 15

5 11

163 11

6*58

88*8

40*3

56*t

8*46

64 1

74 6

96 14

5 10

178 14

5*76

35*8

41*6

55*8

3*14

10 4

88 9

95 6

5 S

183 1

6*78

88*4

45*1

58-1

8*80

81 1

93 5

107 4

5 10

906 3

5-94

89*8

45*8

58*0

8*T8

75 5

68 8

105 1

5 9

199 S

6*68

87*8

44*4

58*8

8*7»

as S

96 15

110 7

5 10

813 0

6.99

38*6

' 45*5

51*8

8*63

75 6

87 3

97 7

9 15

187 9

6*30

40*8

46*5

51*9

1*57

88 6

101 0

113 0

5 1

819 1

5*76

40*3

46*1

51-6

8*30

14 8

129 1

1S5 4

5 7

859 18

5*60

44*1

49-7

48*8

9*08

Means.

47 18

146

6*18

88-5

88*6

58*4

3*03

67 10

100

186

6*81

36-0

48*8

54*0

3*77

76 13

103

197

6*50

88*9

45.4

58*1

8*60

01 7

115

119

838

5*68

48*8

47-9

49*9

8*19

71 8

100

189

6*28

87*8

43*4

68-7

8*93

24 On t/ie Composition of Oxen^ Sheep^ mid Pigs^

In order, however, to get some further direct experimental evidence
on the point, the carcasses of most of these slaughtered pigs were
separated by the butcher into —

1. Inside fat or " flare " (with kidneys).

2. Outside fat or " flitch,"

3. Legs, ribs, and shoulder-blades.

4. Shoulders or " hands."

5. Head and feet.

Table X. (pp. 22, 23) gives a summary of the results of these
separations.

The general result is, that when the proportion of won-nitro-
genous to nitrogenous substance in the food was comparatively
high, the proportion of carcass in the live-weight was also com-
paratively high ; and the carcasses themselves at the same time
comprised a larger proportion of the fat, and a less one of the
lean, parts. There cannot be a doubt that those animals which
yielded the largest proportion of carcass, and whose carcasses
consisted in the larger proportion of the fat parts, would be those
most valued by the consumer, and for which the feeder would get
the highest price.*

Attention has already been called to the fact, that, taking onlv
the. price of the food and the value of the manure into considera-
tion, it would be the interest of the farmer to employ the more
highly nitrogenous foods pretty liberally. It was shown, on
the other hand, that when the proportion of nitrogenous to
non-nitrogenous substance in the food exceeded a stated amount,
the projxjrtion of increase in live- weight obtained, for a given
amount of food, was either less or but very little greater. It is
now further seen, that with an excessive proportion of nitroge-
nous substance in the food, the proportion of carcass was less,
and the proportion of the carcass itself that consisted of the
more valued fat parts, was also less. In fact, at any rate during
the last few weeks of the fattening of pig^s, the proportion of
nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous substance in the food should very
little exceed that existing in the cereal grains.

* In connexion with the quef^tion of the influence of the food, and the ch*-
racter of development of the animal, upon the character and Talne of the meet
produced, ir may here be further mentioned, that in the case of some of the sheep
that were fed experimentally upon different foods, joints from selected sninali
were roasted, and the weights oi the cooked meat, the dripping, and the loss by
evaporation, determined. The result was. that both the leg flJid the kin of a
sheep that had been fattened upon steeped barley, and mangol&, and whidi gare a
very rapid increase, save several per cent, less cooked meat, and lost more botk
of fat in the form of dripping, and of water, than the corresponding Joints of a
sheep which had been fed upon iir(/ barley, and mangolds, and whidi gsfe only
about half the amount of gross increase within the same period of time.

and of their Increase whilst Fattening, 25

III. — Chemical Composition of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs, in

DIFFERENT CONDITIONS OF GrOWTH AND FaTNESS.

The mineral matter, the nitrogenous substance, and the fat,
have been determined in certain separated parts, and in the
entire bodies, of 10 animals, namely : —

1. A fat calf — of the Durham breed; 9 or 10 weeks old;

taken from the dam feeding upon grass ; killed Sep-
tember 12, 1849.

2. A half-fat ox — Aberdeen breed ; about 4 years old ; fed

on fattening food ; but which had grown rather than fat-
tened ; killed November 14, 1849.

3. A moderately fat ox — Aberdeen breed ; about 4 years

old ; fed on fattening food ; killed October 30, 1849.

4. A fat lamb — Hampshire Down ; about 6 months old ;

killed August 17, 1849.

5. A store sheep — Hampshire down ; about a year old ; killed

February 28, 1850.

6. A half-fat old sheep — Hampshire Down ewe ; 3|- years

old; killed May 3, 1849.

7. A fat sheep — Hampshire Down ; IJ year old ; killed

May 7, 1849.

8. A very fat sheep — Hampshire Down ; If year old ; killed

December 13, 1848.

9. A store pig; killed May 12, 1850.

10. A fat pig ; same litter as last ; fed on fattening food for
10 weeks; killed July 18, 1850.

Of the 10 animals analysed, the store sheep and the store pig
were certainly in a much leaner condition than that in which
sheep and pigs are usually, if ever, slaughtered for food in this
country. Sometimes, though seldom, oxen and sheep may be
killed in as lean a state as the " half-fat ox," and the " half-fat
old sheep." The " fat calf," the " fat ox," the " fat lamb," and
the " fat sheep," may perhaps be taken as fairly representing
the average conditions, respectively, of such animals of reputed
good quality, and admitted to be properly fattened. The *' extra
fat sheep" was, undoubtedly, considerably fatter than mutton
as usually killed ; it was, in fact, in the condition of what is
called " Christmas mutton." The " fat pig " was somewhat larger
and fatter than the average of the animals consumed in large
proportion as fresh pork ; but certainly less, and not so fat, as the
average of those fed and slaughtered more exclusively for curing.

The composition of the carcass, and of the djfal^ respectively,
of each of the 10 animals, is given in Table XI. (p. 26) ; and
that of the entire bodies in Table XII. (p. 27.)

On t/i€ Composition of Oxen^ Sheep^ and Pigs^

Table XI.

Percentages of Mineral Matter, Nitrogenous Compounds, Fat, Total
Dry Substance, and Water, in the Carcasses, and in the OffuK
respectively, of 10 Animals, of different descriptions, or in different
conditions of Growth and Fatness.

DESCRIPTION OF ANIMAL.

Mineral
Matter
(Ash).

Nitro-
genous
Conipounds
(Dry).

Fat

(D17).

Total

Dry

Substance.

Water.

Per Cent, in Carcass.

Fat Calf
Ilalf-fat Ox
Fat Ox

Fat Lamb . .
Store Sheep
Half-fat old Sheep
Fat Sheep .. ..
Extra fat Sheep ..

Store Pig
Fat Pig

Means of all

' 4*48

16-6

16.6

37-7

6-56

17*8

22'6

46-0

4-56

15-0

34*8

54-4

3-63

10-9

36*9

51-4

4-36

14*5

23*8

42-7

4«13

U-9

31-3

50-3 .

3-45

11-6

45-4

60-3

2-77

9«1

55* 1

67*0

2-57

14-0

88*1

44-7

1*40

10*6

49-5

61-4

3-69

13-5

34*4

51-6

62-0
54-0
45-6

48-6
57-3
40-7
39*7
33-0

55»3
38*6

48-4

Per Cent, in Offal (=sum of Pails, excluding Contents of Stomachs and

Intestines).

Fat Calf .. ..

Half-fat Ox

Fat Ox .. ..

Fat LAmb . .
Store Sheep . .
Half-fat old Sheep
Fat Sheep .. ..
Extra fat Sheep . .

Store Pig .. ..
Fat Pig .. ..

Means of all

3-41
4.05
3.40

2'
2'
2-
2'
3'

19
72
32

3-07
2«97

171
20«6
17-5

18-9
18-0
17-7
16-1
16-»

14-0
14-8

3*02 . 17'2

14*6

15
26

■7
3

1
1

20'

16'

18-5

26-4

34-5

15«0
22*8

21*0

35
40
47

1
4
2

5
3

38*9

44-8

54*9

32*1
40-6

41-2

64*9
59*6
52-8

58-5
63*7
61*1
55-2
45* I

67*9
59*4

58-8

For a full discussion of the composition of these 10 animals,
and more especially for a consideration of the bearing of the
results upon die question of the probable average composition of
the meat consumed as human food, and its relations to bready
the reader is referred to our Paper in the Transactions of the
Royal Society, already quoted. We can here do little mote
than call attention to the composition of the animals^ and of their

increaa^

and of their Increase whilst Fattening.

.§

«^

?»

•S

•!S

OQ
CO
Q

-♦^

K*-

f-i

«»-l

d
0

••-•

C»

«k

• -«-9

• ^H

■• ^«5

•r^

a n3

;-i

1 fl

3 ^

5 O

i p.

•s

o
d

• i-t

•h
I4

:§

-♦»

-g

•i-<

d
0

C*-l

o m

-§
CO

§3t^'

133

12^

sii

O O H

132

t
I

r« o» 00
»-i ^ o>

"* O »o d 00

»o o o o ^

eOQOO ODOOtOiA

• •

lA CO

O»ft»0 t»00COCOOI

CO -^ o

w »o ^

t» r^ O CO M)
-^ o >a -<^ CO

3 ^

«^ o> (^

■ • •
•^ »0 Tf»
C4 — -^

'^ kC to ^ CO
• . • • •

00 »n CI o ^
^ « « d -^

d o

• •

o>(oao eoao»»04o> oo^

F- « o
"* eo 00

o> -^ »^ w o
d eo C4 01 o«

0>CO(0 r»i»ot^<o r»t^

eo o 00

CO "* "^

CO o o o o»

<**• CO -T >0 »0

eo o

00<?i c«icoco«or>. 000 d

'^ t^ ^ Q000O)t>>d

CO O) (O
Ol <N CO

C d «0 •* d
CO d d CO -<♦

« •

CO
CO

tor»^ -«o><NOto "*»^

"* 00 o 00 00 eo%o o eo <N oo

eo — o eoC4iO"^o> r<.i« "^
'^-<^t»' tototooo ^^ to

eo o »^

• • •

O '* eo
-^ f^ 91

»M r* t>. »M r>.

• • • • •

<N d to to -^

« -^ »-• d eo

r« to

• •

00 t^

f- CO

-<^oto ^to^co^ r»o> to
^to^**" ci>*"*d-^ coo eo

— "*to o»o»eor^co "^o eo

• •• ■•••• ••

eooo toi»QOtot» eoo eo
• •• ••••• •■

O'-'O tor^t^too O>Q0 00

O to 04
00 to o»

eo to ^• »^ O
0» -* -* 00 o>

h« lA

to to

co'^co eieoeoijiei g\ *^

01 to o
o o o»

to ^ to eo o

*^ 00 0> 00 f

CO O)
0> lA

»^»iMO oooo»^ 00

00 o o«
r« to o

r» (N ^ 00 o

^ eo c* o> t^

-* to

H
O

e3
(St

* a, • •

• jd • a>

efi

03 Pi

«M

ea
IS

■i3 rt O

^ >?

28 On the Comjiosition of OxetL, Sheq>y and Pigs^

•

increasey and its relation to that of the food consumed: that
is, considering; them in the light of manufactured articles, pro-
duced by the farmer from certain raw materials.

All the results tend to show a prominent connection between
the proportion of the mineral matters, and that of the nitrogenous
constituents of the body — there being a general disposition to a
rise or fall in the percentage of mineral matter, with the rise or
fall in that of the nitrogenous compounds. It has already been
seen, that the bony and fleshy parts were the more developed
when the food was somewhat highly nitrogenous.

Composition of tlie Carcasses.

Looking first to the composition of the different carcasses, it
is seen, that, in every instance, excepting that of the calf, there
was considerably more of dry fat tiban of dry nitrogenous com-
pounds.

In the carcass of even the store or lean sheep, there was more
than one and a half time as much fat as nitn)genous substance ;
and in that of the store or lean pig, there was twice as much. In
the carcass of the half-fat ox there was one-fourth more fat than
nitrogenous matter ; and in that of the half-fat old sheep, there
was more than twice as much.

Of the fatter animals, the carcass of the fat ox contained twice
and one-third as much dry fat as nitrogenous substance ; that of
the fat sheep four times, and that of the very fat sheep, even six
times as much. Lastly, in the carcass of the moderately fat
pig, there was nearly five times as much fatty matter as nitroge-
nous compounds.

From these results it may, perhaps, be safely inferred, that in
the carcasses of beef of reputed good condition, there will be
seldom less than twice as much, and frequently nearly three
times as much dry fat as dry nitrogenous substance. In the car-
casses of sheep we should conclude, that the fat would generally
amount to more than three, and frequently to four or even more,
times as much as the nitrogenous matter. Finally, it may be
estimated that in the carcasses of pigs killed for fresh pork, there
will frequently be about four times as mucn fat as nitrogenous
compounds ; whilst, in those fed for curing, the fat will be in a
considerably higher proportion.

The fat of the bones bears but a small proportion to that of
the whole carcass, whilst of the whole nitrogen of the carcasses,
perhaps not less than one-fifth will be in their bones.

As the animal matures, the mineral, the nitrogenous, and the
fatty matters, all increase in actual amount ; but the percentage
in the carcass of both mineral matter and nitrogenous substance
decreases, whilst that of the fat increases so as to much more

and of their Increase whilst Fattening, 29

than compensate for the decrease in that of the other solid mat-
ters. The result is, that there is an increase in the percentage
of total dry substance.

In the carcasses of the leaner animals there were from 54 to 62
per cent, of water ; namely, in that of the calf 6 2 J, of tbe store
sheep 57^, of the store pig 55 J, and of the half-fat ox 54 per cent.
The carcasses of all the other animals contained less than 50 per
cent, and those of the fattest less than 40 per cent., of water.
That of the moderately-fattened ox contained 45^, of the fat
lamb 48|, of the half-fat sheep 49f , of the fat sheep 39§, and of
the very fat sheep only 33, per cent, of water. Lastly, in the
carcass of the moderately-fattened pig there were 38^ per cent,
of water. Between the condition in which these particular car-
casses were taken for analysis and that in which the meat would
be sold by the butcher, from 1 to 2 per cent, or perhaps more, of
water would be lost by evaporation.

The bones contain a higher percentage of dry matter than the
collective soft parts. The proportion of bone is the highest in
oxen, less in sheep, and still less in pigs. It is, too, the less the
fatter the animal. The percentage of dry matter in the bone
increases as the animal matures.

From the whole of the data adduced on the point, it may
perhaps be safely concluded that the average of well-fattened
carcass-beef will contain 50 per cent, or rather more, of dry
substance ; that of properly-fattened mutton rather more than
beef — say 55 to 60 per cent. ; that of pigs killed for fresh pork
rather more than sheep ; and the sides of pigs killed for curing
still more. Lamb carcasses appear to contain a smaller propor-
tion of dry substance than either moderately-fattened beef, mutton,
or pork. But, of all, the carcass of the calf contains the least
proportion of dry substance ; and, at the same time, its proportion
of bone is higher than in that of any other of the animals.

Such, then, is the composition of the carca^y or that part of
the animal which it is the object of the feeder to develop as much
as possible.

Composition of the Offal

Upon the composition of the collective offal parts very few com-
ments on the records given in the Table (p. 26) need be made.

The percentage of mineral matter^ mainly dependent on the
proportion of bone, is generally less in the collective offal than in
the collective carcass parts. It is, too, in the former less than the
figures in the Table indicate ; for these include a quantity of
adventitious dirt, which it was im|K)ssible to remove from the
hair of the oxen, but more jiarticularly from the wool of the sheep,
and especially from that of the extra-fat one.

30 On the Composition of Oxen^ Sheep^ and PiffSy

The percentage of dry nitrogenous substance is in every case
greater, and that of the^a^ very much less, in the collective offal
than in the collective carcass parts. A very large proportion of
the nitrogenous substance of the offal — in some cases nearly half —
is due to the pelt and hair, or wool. Of the remainder, perhaps,
on the average, only about as much will be used as human food
as will not be consumed of the nitrogenous substance of the bones
of the carcass.

With the larger percentage of nitrogenous substance and the
less percentage of fat, the collective offal parts have invariably a
less percpntage of total dry substance, and therefore a larger pro-
portion of water, than the collective carcass parts.

Composition of tfie Entire Bodies.

It is, of course, the composition of the entire bodies of the
fattened animals which represents that of the gross product of
the feeding process. It is this, therefore, that is of the most
interest to the Farmer ; and it is this which has to be considered
in relation to the constituents of food expended in its production.
Table XII. shows the percentage of mineral matter^ of dry nitro-
genous compounds, of fat, of total dry substance, and of water, in
the entire body of each of the ten animals analysed. It at the
Scime time shows how much of the total amount of each consti-
tuent was contained in the carcass, and how much in the offal parts.

The Mineral Matter. — ^There is a marked diminution in the
percentage of mineral matter in the entire body as the animal
matures.

It may be judged from the figures that from 3^ to 4 pjer cent,
(according to breed and condition) of the fasted live-weight of
fattened calves and oxen will be mineral matter. Excluding the
adventitious matter of the wool, the proportion of mineral matter
in fattened lambs and sfteej) would probably be often as little as 2^,
and seldom more than 3 per cent. In pigs the proportion of
mineral matter is still less. In a well-fattened pig of good breed
it may amount to only 1^ per cent., or even less, of its standing
live-weight. In a young unfattened pig there were found 2*67
per cent, of mineral matter ; but in an animal of worse breed, or
in a leaner condition still, it may be judged that there might be
3 per cent

As an average estimate of the mineral matter in store animals
sold off or brought on the farm, we should be disposed to adopt
4^ to 5 per cent of the live-weight of oxen, 3 to 3^ per cent for
sheep, and 2^ to 3 per cent, for pigs.

As a general average estimate, it may be assumed that 35 to
40 per cent of the mineral matter of die entire bodies will be
phosphoric acid, and 5 to 6 per cent, potash.

and of their Increase whilst Fattening. 31

T7te Nitrogenous Compounds, — Of total nitrogenous compounds,
as well as total mineral matter, oxen seem to contain (in parallel
conditions) rather more than sheep, and sheep rather more than
pigrs. •

Including bones, pelt, hair or wool, and internal organs, the
entire body of a fat calf contained about 15^, of a moderately-fat
ox 14J, of a fat lamb 12^, of a fat sheep 12 J, of a very fat one
11, and of a moderately-fattened pig about the same amount,
namely, 10*9 per cent, of dry nitrogenous substance.

The store animals contained from 2 to 3 per cent more of total
dry nitrogenous substance than the moderately-fat ones.

The Fat, — The fat constitutes by far the most prominent item
in the dry or solid matter of the fed and slaughtered animals.

Of the animals not ripe for the butcher, the entire body of the
half-fat ox contained 18| per cent, of dry fat, or more than of dry
nitrogenous substance, and nearly as much as of nitrogenous sub-
stance and mineral matter put together. The entire body of the
store sheep contained nearly 19 per cent, of fat, or more than of
other solid matter, and that of the half-fat old sheep alK)ut 23|- per
cent, or more than 1^ time as much as of dry nitrogenous sub-
stance. The store pig contained about 23i^ per cent, of fat, or
about the same amount as the half-fat old sheep, but a somewhat
larger proportion to the other solid matters.

Of the animals fit for the butcher, the entire body of the fat ox
contained rather more, and that of the fat lamb rather less, than
30 per cent, of fat ; that of the fat sheep 35i^ per cent., that of the
very fat sheep 45 1 per cent, and that of the fat pig 42 per cent.

The body of the fat calf contained only 14i^ per cent, of fat, or
less both in actual amoimt and in proportion to the other solid
matters than that of any of the other animals analysed.

Thus, analysis shows that the entire bodies of some of the most
important animals fed and slaughtered for human food, even
when in a reputed lean condition, may contain more dry fat than
dry nitrogenous compounds. This was the case with the half-fat
ox, a store or lean young sheep, a half-fat old sheep, and a store
or lean young pig. In fact, the two latter — the half-fat old sheep
and the store pig — contained nearly If time as much dry fat as
dry nitrogenous matter.

Of the animals ripe for the butcher, an ox contained rather
more than twice as much, a moderately-fat sheep nearly three
times as much, and a very fat sheep rather more than four times
as much, dry fat as dry nitrogenous substance. A moderately-fat
pig also contained about four times as much dry fat as dry nitro-
genous substance. Even a fat lamb yielded more than twice as
much. The calf alone, though professedly fattened, contained
rather less fat than nitrogenous matter.

32 On the Composition of Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs.

Taking the mean composition of the six animals assumed to
be fit for the butcher — namely, the fat calf, the fat ox, the fat
lamb, the fat sheep, the very fat sheep, and the fat pig — we have,
in round numbers, 3 per cent, of mineral matter, 13 per cent, of
dry nitrogenous compounds, and 33 per cent of fat, in their fasted
live-weight, = 49 per cent, total dry substance, exclusive of that
of the contents of stomachs and intestines.

All the experimental evidence conspires to show that the so-
called " fattening " of animals is properly so designated. Even
" lean " animals have been seen to contain more fat than nitro-
genous compounds. After the feeding or fattening proc€?ss, the
percentage of the total dry substance of the body is considerably
increased ; and the fatty matter accumulates in much larger
proportion than the nitrogenous compounds. It is obvious, there-
fore, that the increase of the fattening animal must contain a
lower percentage of nitrogenous substapce, and a higher one of
both fat and total dry substance, than the entire body of the
slaughtered animal. Moreover, with the comparatively small
increase in the amount of bone, and the small accumulation of
soft nitrogenous parts, we should expect the percentage of
mineral matter also to be very small in the increase of the fat-
tening animal.

IV. Estimated Composition of the Increase of Fattening

Oxen, Sheep, and Pigs.

It is obvious that, provided we knew the composition of an
animal when it weighed any given weight — say 100 lbs. — and
again, when, after fattening, it had reached another weight —
say 150 lbs. — it would be a very easy matter to calculate the
actual, and the percentage composition, of the 50 lbs. that had
been gained. The practical difficulty rests in the fact that we
cannot know the exact composition of a fattened animal at the
time it was put upon fattening food, or when it had reached any
given previous weight Exercising a careful judgment on the
point, we have applied the composition of the respective animals
analysed in the lean condition, to the known weights of numbers
of animals of the same description, when assumed to be in a
similar lean condition. In like manner the composition of the
fat animals analysed has been applied to the weights of the same
animals after being fattened.

In the manner here described, the composition of the increa»
of 98 fattening oxen, 349 fattening sheep, and 80 fattening pigs
-—each divided into numerous classes, according to breed, con-
dition of maturity, or description of food — has been calculated.
The composition of the increase, so calculated, together with some

and of their Increase whilst Fattening,

collateral particulars of the feeding experiments, are recorded
in Tables XIII., XIV., and XV. : Table XIII. referring to oxen,
Table XIV. to sheep, and Table XV. to pigs.

It is obvious that the correctness of the estimates of the com-
position of increase recorded in the Tables, will entirely depend
upon the degree of identity of the composition of the specimen
animals analysed, with that of those to which the analytical data
are applied in the calculations. The results must, indeed, be
looked upon as only approximations ; though we believe the
data now supplied constitute the most reliable basis for estimates
of this kind at present at command.

So far as oxen are concerned, we have taken for our estima-
tions of the composition of increase the best experiments on
record with which we are acquainted, that show, so far as can
be judged, a progress comparable with that supposed in the
change from the condition of the ** half-fat," to that of the " fat-
ox," analysed.

In regard to sheep and pigs, we take the data supplied by our
own numerous feeding-experiments, the results of most of which,
80 far as the relation of gross increase in live-weight to the
amount of food, or its constituents, consumed, is concerned, have
already been published in full, either in this Journal or elsewhere,
and of which a condensed summary is given at the commence-
ment of this Article.

Table XIII. — Estimated Composition of the Increase of Fattening

Bullocks and Heifers.

[Note. — OrCjinal weight taken at the Composition of the " Half-fat Ox '* analysed.
Fifuil weight at the Composition of the " Fat Ox ** analysed.

GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

Calculated per Cent, in
Increase.

Aothority.

DeKn'p-

tion of

Animal.

Num-
ber
of

Ani-
mals.

Duration

of
Experi-
ment.

Description
Fattening Food.

In-
crease

"KT

Ori-
ginal
weight.

860
30-4
38*4

Mi-
neral
Matter

(ash).

Nitro-
genous
Com-
pounds
(dry).

Fat

(dry).

Total

8u?L
stance.

Mr. Temple- \
ton* . . i

Hon. Capt. \
Greyt . . )

Hon. Capt. 1
Greyt . . /

1
Heifers ! 12

Bullocks! &0

Bollocks 36

wk8.day8.
18 6

29} 0

86} 0

( Swedish tnr- )

< nips hay, and >
i oat-straw. )
( Oilcake, bean- l
/ meal, and >
I turnips. )
I Oilcake, bean- )

< meal, and >
I turnips. )

106
1*47
1*68

6'51
7-68
8-10

78&
66-3
641

800
75*4
78«

Average— 98 animals . . | 1*47 7'«9 ^-2

75-4

By the side of the estimates of the composition of the increase
of the fattening pigs there is given, for the sake of comparison*

* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society uf Enitland. vol. ivi. pp. 10^109.

* Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gaaette, pp. 715 and 738 (1858)

•^^

34 Or the Compotitien of Oxm, Sheep, and Piffs,

Table XIV,— EBtimated Coinjiosition of the Jncreaie of Fat

.GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMEKTa.

CUcoIital ret Cat a

™.

Dwriptioii oriUtoiiDt P«d.

-St

Sak"-

■"

.y.^,.

fli

T1.

K-» -,

1 Wl«k.Md

£s:i:e:^:.^"

■• *;

« S

lunUi».

i «'e

*■(

I.'.

__^__^__

_[i..0_

M-6

."■?!.

.';"-

.*"-

31 6

„.

Til

™-|l

'f.T-r

M«

......

M1»

a-u

1-T5

TO-t

Cl^bs [U, (Se
"Fat ,SWp"

[f:B l.;)—0r:3iWi/ weight
naljsed. Firvil ^tighl al

»"■»"■■{

1 1^ s loilnke . . .

of Uie ■' Fnt Sh*ep" aualj«L

CLAiB V. (Srkteb 4.11— OriV/uw/ weight taken at (he ecunpositioii of Oie " Store Shtq. " pte n
third* of the ilifferenco between the " Store " and " Kot Sb«p " luuljied. Final weight U the ami*
Una of tJw " fnt .Shwp " iimily>*d.

Milt (gKMUd)

BuBtm ftv " Oh II.' ' will Ic DM eu«ln tram Six «<w: •» Iflit
r/«imiloribrIlDnl AirieallanlXgcMFof^gluiil, 'ol ill, gen
SOU. ntL >. put I.

and of their Increase vohiUt Fattening.

Table XV.— Estimated Composition of the Increase of Fattening Pios.

)TE. — In all cases Original weiujht taken at the Composition of the ** Store Pig ** analysed.

Final weight talcen i\*. the CompositicMi of the " Fat Pig" analysed.]

GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

CSalculated per (3ent. in Increase.

Duration.

Description of Fattening Food.

In-
crease
upon

100
Ori-
ginal
weight.

Per

Cent.

Carrasi

in
Fasted
Live-
weight.

Mi-
neral
Matter

(ash).*

Nitro-
genous
(Com-
pounds
(dry).

Non-
nitro-
genous
Sub-
stance
(fat).

Total
Dry

ila.

Given in
Limited Quantity.

Given
ad libitum.

Sub-
stance.

The *' Store" and " Fat Pig" actually analysed.

wksjdays.

10 0

{Mixture of bran 1. bean and lentil meal 2,
and barley-meal 3 parts* ad libitum . .

Series \.X

3 i

S I

3
S
3

3 !

V 8 0

■=1"

None

Indian-meal

Indian-meal and bran . .

None

Bean and lentil meal . .
; Hran

(Bean and lentil meal and )
bran /

{Bean and lentil meal. Indian*meal and bran, )
eat;h ad libitum /

Means

Bean and
lentil meal

Indian-meal

{

68*9
79-6
&9-0

51-3
670
74-5

80*3

69-7

67*5

81*9
83*0
82*2

8&'4
64 4
88-7

83'5

83-9

83*5

0'16
0-36

-ocn

-0-36
010
0*26

0-37

—0-04

6-73
7-29
603

5*29
6-61
708

7-32

6-05

69 -6
65-9
74*2

79-0
70-4
67*5

65-7

73-9

0*09

6-54

70-8

76*5
73-6
80*1

84-0
77-1
74*9

73*4

79-8

77-4

Seriks II.:

Bean and
lentil meal.

Barley-meal

None

Harley-meal

Bran

Iterley-meal and bran . .

None

Bean and lentil meal . .

Bran

i Bean and lentil meal and \
\ bran i

( Mixture of bran 1. barley-meal 2. and bean
I and lentil meal 3 parts, ad libitum . .

{Mixture of bran 1. bean and lentil meal 2,
and barley-meal 3 parts, ad libitum . .

Means ....

}

45*0
63-7

a9-7

S5-7

64-9
58-6
65 0

44-6

63-7

74*6

611

M)*66
0*03
—004
—0*17

007

-008

0*07

-0*64
006

4-56
6*37
6-07
5-71

6-46
6*98
6*46

4-49

6 '38

0-27 705

— 010 5*95

84-1
71*9
73*8
76*1

71*6
74*4
71-3

84*4

71*8
67"4

88-0
78 -S
79-8
81*7

T7-8
80*8
77*8

88*8

78*3
74*8

74-6 I 80*5

Series III.J

> 8 0
4 '

1 Bran and In-

Dried«d-Bd.. .... f»^^)

I , Indian-meal

51-1
601

84*6

fir: -3

-0-87
-005

5-26

6*12

79-1
73-6

84-1
79-7

Means ....

55*7

86-0

-021

5*69

76*3 81*8

Series IV.§

3
3
8
3

(' (
> 10 0 ^ Lentil meiiX and bean . . <

I , Lentils, bran, sugar, starch.

Sugar . . .
Starch . . .
Suaar and starch
each ad libitum

86-4

87*0

96*8

106*8

881

80-1
81-7
80-8

0-48
0-48
0-58
0-70

7*53
7*68
7*98
8*17

64*1
63*9
62*0
59*9

72-1
72*0
70-6
68-8

If cans ....

94*3

81-4

0-56

7-81

62*5

70-9

General

Means ....

0*06

6*44

71-5

78*0

I^^^M

amount of mineral matter is probably in many cases too low, see text, p. 38.

• figures are somewhat corrected from thotie given in the Report of the Britiiili Association for the Advancement
ee lor IhM, where the Composition of the Increaiie of this analysed " Fat Pig" ia given as follows:— Mineral
1-43, Nitrogen 1 '33 (equal about 8*38 Nitrogenous Compounds). 63*4 Fat. and 71*8 Total Dry Substance.
futiier parCieaUrs of the experiments, see Journal of the Royal Agricultural Societv of England, vol. xiv. part 2.
fnitbfer partkolars of the experiments, see Report of the British AaodHkm tot uwb K4'«%aRKBMsaVtA.'$«aiBci!tA

i\C^ On the dfmjwsition of Oxen^ Sheep^ and Piffs,

the estimatcnl composition of the increase from the store to the
fat condition of the single pig that was put up to fatten when it
was, as nearly as could be judged, in a parallel state to the one
analysed as " store," and was itself afterwards analysed as " fat,"
and whose composition, together with that of the store animal,
])rovides the data for application to the other cases.

Noticing first the composition of t/ie increase of the oxen^ it is
probable that the estimate is the most nearly correct for the
3() animals tliat were under experiment for 26f weeks, and
whose proportion of increase upon 100 original weight was the
highest. Tlie m(;an of all the 98 animals gives, for the compo-
sition of the increase^ 75*4 per cent, of total dry substance; of
which 66*2 were fat, 7 "69 dry nitrogenous compounds, and 1*47
mineral matter. These figures may perhaps be taken as pretty
nearly representing the average composition of the increase,
over the concluding period of half a year or more, of animals
fed on good fattening food, and brought at last to a fair condi-
tion of maturity and fatness. In passing a judgment as to the
probable direction of their error, we should say that the fat and
total dry matter may possibly be stated somewhat too high, and
the nitrogenous matter somewhat too low.

An examination of Table XIV., relating to sheej)^ will show
that the several " Classes " of animals were fed upon different
foods, and for different periods of time, and gave accord inglj
different proportions of increase upon 100 original weight, and
also different proportions of carcass in fasted live-weight. These
points are of course taken into consideration in adopting, from
the data relating to the animals actually analysed, a composition
for the original and final weights respectively of the different
Classens.

Thus, in Class I., large numbers of animals were fed for a con-
siderable period of time, from a fair store to a fair fat conditioa
Accordingly the composition of the analysed *' store sheep " is
applied to the original weights, and that of the analysed "fat
sheep " to the final weights.

In Class II. the animals were fed from 9k fat to a veryfai con-
dition— in fact, to the ccmdition of what is called '* Christmas
mutton." In these cases, therefore, the original weights are
calculated at the composition of "fat sheep," and the final
weights at that of the " extra-fat sheep " analysed.

In Classes III. and IV. the animals were taken in a partiallv
fattened condition, and fed to that of moderate fatness. In the
case of Class III. the period of the feeding experiment was com-
j>aratively short ; and in that of Class IV. the food was not well
adapted for fattening. Hence, in these cases the proportion of
increase upon the oTigiua\ yjc\^\x\s viero:^^ «ti\>j about half «•

and of their Increase whilst Fattening. 37

much as in Class I. Having regard to these circumstances, the
composition of the original weights of the sheep of Classes III.
and IV. is taken at the mean between that of the " store " and
that of the " fat sheep " analysed ; and that of their final weights
at that of the "fat sheep" itself.

From considerations of a similar nature, in Class V., the ori-
ginal'weights are taken at a composition two-thirds advanced from
that of the " store " to that of the " fat sheep " analysed. The final
weights are taken at the composition of the analysed " fat sheep."

The percentage of carcass in Justed live-weighty as given in the
Table, shows pretty well the comparative ^?iaZ condition of the
respective lots ; and this was obviously not widely different in
Classes I., III., IV., and V.

It must not be supposed that the differences which the figures
show in the estimated composition of the increase of the different
sets of animals within one and the same Class, may really be
taken as representing the variations in composition attributable
to the variations in breed, food, &c. All that can be claimed
is, that the results, as a whole, give the best indications of the
composition of the increase of fattening sheep at present at com-
mand ; and that they pretty fairly represent the differences
between Class and Class.

From the figures in the Table, it would appear that the in-
crecLse of the fattening sheep contained from 2 to 3 per cent,
of mineral matter. Either of these estimates is, however, un-
doubtedly too high. The error is due to the fact that there was
a quantity of dirt in the wool, which added considerably to the
weight of its ash ; and it happened to be the greater in that of
the fatter animals. Excluding altogether from the calculations
the ash of the wool, the percentage of mineral matter in the
increase of these fattening sheep would appear to be certainly
under 2, and sometimes under IJ, per cent

In the increase of the fattening sheep the average estimate of
nitrogenous compounds is 7*13, of fat 70*4, and of total dry sub-
stance 79*9 per cent Thus, the calculations show a rather less
percentage of nitrogenous compounds, and a rather higher one
of both fat and total dry substance, in the increase of the fatten-
ing sheep than in that of the oxen. It would be expected that,
under comparable conditions, such would be the case.

The composition of the increase from the store to the fat con-
dition of the analysed fat pig (see top of Table XV.) shows
0*53 per cent mineral matter, 7*76 per cent nitrogenous com-
pounds, 63*1 per cent of fat, and in all 71*4 per cent, of total
dry substance.

Against these numbers, which undoubtedly represent the truth
very closely {or the particular animal to viVvAi \3sife^ x^^^t^*^^

On the Composition of Oxen^ Sheep, and PigSy

average of all the other estimates gives 0*06 per cent mineral
matter, 6*44 per cent, nitrogenous comjwunds, 71*5 per cent of
fat, and 78*0 per cent of total dry substance — ^that is, less
mineral matter and nitrogenous compounds, and several per cent
more fat and total dry substance, than in the case of the single
analysed fat pig. Most of the animals, the composition of whose
increase is thus estimated, were, in fact, in a somewhat further
advanced condition than the single animal, both at the commence-
ment (as was shown by the original weights), and at the conclu-
sion, as is seen by the percentages of carcass in fasted live-weight
recorded in the Table.

According to the figures in the Table, the percentage of
mineral matter in the increase of the pigs was in all cases verv
small ; in fact, in many cases, there was ajjparentlt/ a loss of
mineral matter during the fattening process. From the kno^n
tendency of the pig to fatten rather than to grow, when liberally
fed with the current fattening food-stuffs, we should expect that
the bony framework — the chief storehouse of mineral matter —
would develop less in its case than in that of either fattening
sheep or oxen. Still, it is not safe to assume, upon the evidence
of the analysis of only two animals, that there would frequently
be an actual reduction of the total mineral matter of the body
during the fattening period. The more probable alternative is,
that for the purpose of the application of their composition to
the cases in the Table, the analysed fat pig was, compared with
the analysed leaner one, of somewhat too light a frame.

The following Table shows, at one view, the mean results of
the numerous estimates of the composition of the increase whilst
fattening, for each of the three descriptions of animal— oxen,
sheep, and pigs : —

Table XVI.

Etitimab^

per cent in locreue whilst FAttraiog.

CASFS,

Mineral
Matter (Ash).

Nitnigenoos

CompoundA

(iny).

Fat.

Total Pry
Substance.

Ayerage — 98 Oxen

Average — 348 Sheep

Average — 80 Pigs

The analysed Fat Pig

1-47

2-34*

0*06t

0-53

7-69
7-13
6*44

7-76

66-2
70-4
71-5

63-1

75-4
79-9
78-0

71-4

Mean 1*10

7-26

67*8

76*a

* Probably 0*6 per cent, or more, too bigh, owing to the amount of adventitlonu matten in tba
wool of tbe aheep analysed, particularly the fatter oue^ see text, pp. 29, 30. and 3T.
f Probably too low ; see text above.

It may probably be estimated \!^\. \!lcke \iurr«asie of liberally fed

and of their Increase whilst Fattening. 39

oxen, over 6 months or more of the final fattening period, will
consist of 70 to 75 per cent, total dry substance — of which 60 to
65 parts will be fat, 7 to 8 parts nitrogenous compounds, and
about 1^ part mineral matter.

On the same plan of calculation- the final increase of well-fed
sheep, fattening during several months, will probably consist of
75 per cent or more, of total dry substance— K)f which 65 to 70
parts will be fat, 7 to 8 parts nitrogenous compounds, and
perhaps about If part mineral matter.

The increase of pigs fed for fresh pork, during the final 2 or
3 months on fattening food, may be taken at about 67^ to 72^
per cent, total dry substance — 60 to 65 per cent, fat, 6 J to 8 per
cent nitrogenous substance, and considerably less than 1 per cent
of mineral matter. The increase over the last few months of high
feeding, of pigs fed for curing, will contain considerably higher per-
centages of both fat and total dry substance, and lower ones of
both nitrogenous compounds and mineral matter, than that of
the more moderately fattened animal.

It is obvious, that the composition of the increase of the
animals will vary between that given above for the final fattening
period, and that of the entire bodies (see Table XII.), according
to the length of time included within the estimate, and to the
age of the animal, and character of food, and the consequent
character of growth. The composition of the increase during
the whole course of existence will, of course, be very nearly re-
presented by that of the animal at the time of being slaughtered.
The latter will, however, indicate somewhat too high a per-
centage of nitrogenous substance, and too low a one of fat, for
the total increase during life ; for, at the time of birth, the body
will probably contain a higher proportion of nitrogenous to fatty
matter than at any subsequent period.

V. — Relation of the constituents stored up in the in-
crease, TO THOSE CONSUMED IN THE FOOD, BY FATTENING
ANIMALS.

Having, in the cases of most of the sheep and of all the pigs
that were experimentally fed, determined the amount of certain
constituents of the food consumed to produce a g^ven amount of
increase in live- weight, and having now arrived at approximate
estimates of the composition of the increase itself, we have
obviously the means of calculating the proportion of the con-
sumed constituents stored up in the increase of the fattening
animal.

We shall consider — (1.) the probable amount of each of the
several constituents stored up in increase, for 100 of it con-

40 On the Composition of Oxen^ Sheep^ and Piffs^

sumed ; (2.) the probable amount of each constituent stored up
for 100 ojf total dry substance of food consumed ; (3.) the relation
of the amount of jfat stored up, to that of the ready-formed fat in
the food.

1. Amounts of mineral mattery nitrogenous compounds^ non-nitroge-
nans substance^ and total dry substance^ stored up in increase
for 100 of each consumed.

In Table XVII. are recorded the estimates under this head
relating to sheep, and in Table XVIII. those relating* to pigs.

There is evidence that, other things being equal, a highly
nitrogenous food may give a tendency to a comparatively large
increase in frame and flesh. At the same time, observatioo
leads to the conclusion, that with animals fattening under or-
dinary conditions, this tendency will not increase in anythiug
like a numerical proportion to the increased proportion of nitro-
genous constituents, supposing these to be consumed in excessive
amount. The proportion of the nitrogenous matters in the
increase is probably more affected by the age and habits of
the animal, than by their proportion in the food — provided of
course that they are not in defective amount. Hence, and owing
also to the small proportion of the respective constituents of the
food finally retained in the increase, any error arising from
adopting the same composition for the final weights of animals
fattened on very various foods, is immaterial in forming merelj
general and average estimates of the proportion of the con-
sumed constituents that will be stored up in the increase.

Taking the figures in Table XVII. as they stand, the average
of the numerous estimates relating to sheep^ shows rather more
than 3 per cent of the consumed mineral matter, to be retained
in the increase of tlie animal. Assuming the due correction on
account of the extraneous matter in the ash of the wool of the
sheep analysed, the result would show an average of less than
3 per cent. In Class IV. dry food alone was given, and the
proportion of mineral matter to digestible organic substance in
the food was very large. Hence, the proportion of the consumed
mineral matter reckoned to be stored up in the increase is com-
paratively very small — namely, only 1*68 per cent.

Upon the whole it may be concluded, as an average estimate
for sheep fattening for the butcher on a good mixed diet of dry
and succulent food, that they will not carry off more, and pe^
haps frequently less, than 3 per cent, of the consumed miD^
matter. Were it not that sheep are now generally fattened when
still young and growing, the proportion retained in the incm*
during the period of fattening, would probably be eztremelj
small. In fact, it can hardly be greater, on the, average, than

above

(xnd of their Increcue whilst Fattening.

BLE XVII. — Estimated Amount of certain Constituents stored up in IticreasCf
for 100 of each consumed in Food, by fattening Sheep.

GENERAL PARTICULARS OP THE EXPERIMENTS.

Bd.

Nam
ber of
Ani-
mals.

Dnntion.

Description of Fattening Food.

Given in Limited
Quantity.

GiTen
ad lilnUan,

Amount of each claM of Con-
stituents stored up in Increase
for 100 of the same consumed
in Food.

Mineral
Matter

(ash).*

Nitro-
genous

Com-
pounds

(dry).

Non-
nitro>
genous
Sub-
stance.

Total
Dry

Sub-
stance.

wks. days.

« • •

19 5

■ ■ •

20 0

w«then

20 0

ewes .

80 0

ms , .

26 0

^wUV

26 0

Class I.f

^Oilcake and clover chaff

Swedish tomi

Moftiis

■ • •

3-98
315
3*84
3'8»
3*40
3-30

339

4*43
3'39
3-fiO
3-«0
4-2H
4-16

3*91

11-6
180
11-6
11*8
10-3
10*3

11*3

9-10
9*43
9*31
9*40

8-49
8*44

9-18

Class III.

(Series

i).t

5
&
5

13
13
13

6
6
6

Oilcake

^Swedish turnips'

4-16

a-73

3'98

401
707
7-44

iri
lo-o

9-0

9-33
9'4ft
8-49

Oats

Clover chaff

Means ....

4-68

617

10*0

9-00

Class IV. (Series 2).J

Oilcake
Linseed
Barley .
Malt. .

^Clover chaff

Means

1-69
1*81
1-75
1-46

1*68

2'SO
832
2-H2
2-17

2*38

6*3
0*8

5*3

5*9

d*0f7
5*19
»'00
4*61

4*97

Class V. (Series

4)4

wns . I

4
5

10 0
10 0
10 0

10 0

Barlev (ground)

Malt (ground) and malt dust
Barlev (ground and tteeped) .
[ Malt (ground and steeped) \
and malt dust . . . /
Malt (ground) and malt dust

/Mangolds . . <

3*80
404
3-78

2-95

3*46

5-65
6-H
6'35

4*34

5-46

9-8

10-4

H-9

9-3

8-91
9-49
8-88

8*83

8*85

Means ....

3*69

5*60

9-5

8*63

Means of all . .

3*27

4-41

9*4

8'Ot

noonta of " mineral matter" are too high, owing to the adventitioas matters retained by the wool ; see tez^

rtiier ptfticalars of the Experimentt, see Journal Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. xiL, part 8 ; toU
1 ; and vol. xvi., part 1 ; and Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science for 1852.
irtber particulani of the Experiments, see Journal Royal Agricultural Society of England* v<^ x., part 1 ; and
the Bntish Association for the Advancement of Science for 1858.

42 On the Composition of Oxen, Sheep, and Pig&t

Table XVIII. — Estimated Amount of certain constituents stored up in Jncreojf, f(

of each consumed in Food, by fattening l^ios.

GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

Pens.

Num
berof
Ani-
mals.

Duration.

Description of Fattening Food:

Given in
Limited Quantitic

Given
ad libitum.

Amount of eadi class of Cos

stored up in Increase for 10

Mune consumed in Fn

Nitro- Noo- j *^

genous i nitro- V

Com- graoas: »_

Mi-
ner*!
Matter

(ash).>*

uom-
ponnds
(dry).

genoas: ^
Sab- 1^

The analysed "Fat PiQ."t

wks.da7s.
]0 0

{Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil meal 2, and barley-
meal 3 parts, ad libitum

}

2*66

7*76

17-6

Series 1.%

8
4

5
6

3
3
3

3
3 !

y 8 0^

None

Indian*meal

Indian-meal and bran . .

None

liean and lentil meal . . .

Bran

Bean and lentil meal and
bran .Z

Bean and lentil meal

068
86
33

Indian-meal

l-o-

[ —2-0
0-9

..' 1 2-a

/ Bean and lentil meal, Indian-meal, and bran, each 1 '__».«»
I adlibitum J|~^^

4-88
6-39
5 OS

9*28

9-H*

1210

10-08

5*65

Means . . . . | 0-74 i 7-82

253

237
21-1

20-9
20-9
203

i:
i<

21-3 I 1«

211

21*8

Series II.J

2
3

6
6

m
I

d&lO
II&I2'

3
3
3

6
6

* 8 0^

None

Barley-meal

Bran

Barloy-meal and bran . . .

None

Bean and lentil meal . . .

Bran

Bean and lentil meal and
bran

Bean and lentil meal .

^Barley-meal

{Mixture of bran \. bnrley-meal 2, and bean and lentil
meal 3 parts, ad libitum

I Mixture of bran 1. bean and lentil meal 2, and borley-
\ meal 3 parts, ad libitum

Means

— 3-90

0*16
— 016
-0-75

3-12
4-65
3-99
4-57

SS'S
19-2
21-2
201

M
U
1>

0*56

—0-53

0-49

1009
6-57
9-79

18-5

2ri

18-9

—4-33

4-49

22*7

0-27

5*65

80-4

M-

1-36

8-10

21 -1

—0-59

6-10

21-0

i«-

Series lil.i

1
2

8 0 Dried cod-flsh

{

Bran and Indian-meal
(eoual parts) . . .
Indian-meal . . .

Means . . .

—1-06
— 0'86

5*06
8*16

6*61

M-3

25*6

24-9

Series IV.§

1
t

3
3
3
S

llO 0

>Lentil meal and bran . .
i Lentils, bran, sugar, starch, ea

Sagar

Starch

Sunr and starch . . .
di ad libitum ....

8-07
3*18
406
4-80

9-30

996

10-78

9*96

19*4
19*4
17*7
18*7

»
W
II

Means . . . . |

S-78

9*85

18-8

»-

Means of all .

0*58

7-S4

lit

* The amount of mineral matter is probably in many cases too low : see text, vp. 38 and 44.
t For ftarther particulars of the Experiment see Report of the British Aasocaatlon for the
for 18M.

X For Autber pftrtkolan of the Expenmenia see Journal of the Royal Agricultural Sodety of

f For tarthet putlealari of the BxpeHmcnU, lee '^e^vv. ot vYv^'^fiMufti KMaK)M^a&«^^ Vyi^Qcub
ArlSM.

and of their Iricrease whilst Fattening, 43

above supposed, during the whole existence of the animal ; that
is, including the previous, as well as the fattening period. The
proportion of the amount consumed that will be retained in the
increase, will, however, depend much more upon the relation of
the mineral matter to the digestible and available organic sub-
stance of the food, than upon any other circumstance.

At any rate, the proportion of the mineral matter consumed in
the food by either store or fattened sheep, which is sent off the
farm in their bodies, is comparatively small. From the per-
centage in the entire bodies of the animals analysed in the
different conditions, or from the estimates of the amount in the
increase of fattening sheep, the annual loss to the farm of mineral
matter from the sale of known weights of such animals, admits
of easy calculation. ^

Of the nitrogenous compounds consumed by the fattening sheep,
the average of the estimates shows less than 5 per cent, to be
retained in their increase. With a liberal mixed diet of suc-
culent roots and dry food, it is probable, that when the latter
consists chiefly of pulse, oilcake, or other highly nitrogenous
matters, the proportion of the consumed nitrogen which will be
carried off in the increase of the animal, will be less than 5, and
perhaps even less than 4 per cent. On the other hand, when
the dry food consists chiefly of cereal grain or other matters con-
taining a comparatively low percentage of nitrogen, it is probable
that more than 5 per cent of the consumed nitrogen will be
carried off in the increase. On either supposition, the propor-
tion of the total nitrogen consumed by the fattening sheep, that
will be expired, perspired, or voided, will be. considerably more
than 90 per cent., and it may be more than 95 per cent

For 100 parts of wan-nitrogenous substance consumed in food
by the fattening sheep, it is estimated that there were on the
average (excluding Class IV.), about 10 parts stored up in their
increase — of course in the form of fat itself.

For 100 of total dry substance in the food of the sheep, about
8 or 9 parts of dry increase appear to have been stored up.

The dry substance of the food of sheep contains a much larger
proportion of indigestible woody fibre than does that of pigs.
There is, therefore, a larger proportion of the dry substance of the
food of sheep necessarily at once effete.

Turning to the estimates relating to pigs (see Table XVIII.),
it would appear that there is probably fully twice as much dry
substance stored up in their increase for 100 consumed in their
fattening food, as in the case of sheep. The average of all the
estimates relating to pigs shows 17*3 parts of dry increase stored
up for 100 of dry substance of food consumed, against about
15 parts in the case of the single analysed fat pig.

44 On the Composition of Oxen^ Sheep^ and Pig$^

For 100 of no/i-nitrogenous constituents of food, the pigs seem
to have stored up 20 or more of fat, whilst the sheep yielded only
half that proportion.

For 100 of nitrogenous compounds consumed by the pigs there
was, according to the estimates, on the average about 1^ time as
much stored up in the increase as in the case of sheep. Xot
that the increase of the fattening pig contains a larger proportion
of nitrogen than that of the sheep — indeed it is more likely to
contain less ; but a larger proportion of the total dry substance
of the food of the pig is digestible and available for increase,
and accordingly, as already noticed, a given amount of it yields
a much larger proportion of total dry increase ; and with this, a
larger actual amount of nitrogenous increase.

The average of the estimates for the pigs shows 7 '34 per cent,
of the consumed nitrogen to be stored up in the increase, against
7*76 per cent in the case of the analysed fat pig. The greater
the proportion of pulse, or other highly nitrogenous matters in
the fattening food, the smaller will be the proportion of the whole
consumed nitrogen, that will be stored up in the increase. On
the other hand, the larger the proportion of cereal grain with its
comparatively low percentage of nitrogen, the larger will be the
proportion of the whole consumed nitrogen that will be carried
off in the increase. The evidence at command leads to the con-
clusion, that there will be almost uniformly less than 10 per
cent., and sometimes as little as 6 per cent, of the nitrogen of
the food of the fattening pig carried off in its increase.

It has already been pointed out how small, in all probability,
is the j)ercentage of mineral matter in the increase of the rapidly-
fattening pig. Reasons were given, however, for supposing that
our estimates indicated a lower amount than really was the case.
There is little use, therefore, in examining at all closely results
that are based upon admittedly doubtful estimates. Moreover, as
the mineral matter in the food varies very much in its propor-
tion to those constituents which chiefly rule the amount and
the character of the increase, the proportion of the mineral matter
consumed by the fattening pig (as well as by other animals)
which will be stored up in the increase, will be much more
variable than that of the other constituents. It may be safely
stated, however, that, in the case of fattening pigs, the proportion
of the consumed mineral matter which will not be reclaimed in
the manure is almost immaterial. The amount that will be lost
to the manure in the entire bodies of the animals sold, is a matter
of easy calculation from the data recorded in Table XII.

For every 100 parts of ready-formed fatty matter in the food,
there were probably, on the average of the experiments with
pigs, 400 to 500 parts of fat stored up in the increase of the

and of their Increase whilst Fattening. 45

animals. It is obvious, therefore, that there was deformation of
fat in the body, from some other constituent or constituents of
the food. To this point we shall recur presently.

2. Amounts of Mineral Matter, Nitrogenous Compoundsj Fat^ and
total Dry Substance stored up in Increase— and of matter
expired, perspired, or voided—for 100 of total dry substance
consumed in food.

The results under this head are given in Table XIX. for the
different sets of sheep, and in Table XX. for the different sets of
pigs.

It has been already seen that, in the case of the sheep, there
was probably an average of about 9 parts dry substance fixed in
increase for 100 oi dry substance consumed in the fattening
food. Taking the cases in which the food was of the most
usual description. Table XIX. shows, that with about 9 parts
total dry increase, about 8 were non-nitrogenous substance — that
is, fat. It results that for 100 total dry substance of food, there
would be little more than 1 part fixed in increase as nitrogenous
and mineral matters put together. Of this, making due allow-
ance for the error in the estimates arising from the dirt in the
wool, there would, on the average of the cases, be only about 0*2
of mineral matter.

Assuming 9 parts of dry increase to be the produce of 100
parts of dry substance of food, when sheep are liberally fed for
the butcher, there would of course be 91 parts expired, perspired,
or voided.

In the case of the analysed fat pig, 100 parts of dry substance
of food produced 14*94 parts of dry increase. Of this, 13*2 were
fat, 1*62 nitrogenous compounds, and 0*11 mineral matter. From
the circumstances of this experiment it may be concluded that
these figures very closely represent the actual facts.

Against these numbers, the average of all the other estimates
relating to pigs — 24 in number, and comprising 80 animals —
indicates, 17*27 total dry increase for 100 total dry food ; of which
15*81 are estimated as fat, 1*44 nitrogenous substance, and an
insignificant amount mineral matter. It is admitted that the
tabulated estimates of the mineral matter assimilated by sheep
are too high, and that those relating to pigs are probably in error
in the opposite direction.

Pigs, even when young, if put upon highly-fattening food, will
grow comparatively little in frame ; whilst sheep, fattened as
they now generally are at a comparatively early age, will, com-
pared with the pig, develop more of hard bony structure. The
percentage of mineral matter in the carcass of the fat sheep ana-
lysed was very much higher than in that of the analysed fat pig.

E \sw

On the Composition of Oxen, ^eep, and Pifft,

Table XIX. — Estimated amount of constituents stored up
matter Espired, Per8|>ired, or Voided— for 100 dry snlstance of food
fattening Khbrp.

'ncrcasp, tnd ol'

IMDirMUMreTFogripn-

*^.,^I.™.

NiDo-

nitnv
IE

K-

■s-

Bncd.

"'■»,'i!ii;-

.aSSS..

CtMsLt

KSSS"

■ST

'l 1

>-•>

£ S

■'—»-■ If'— 1

!■«

H«H

o-»

•■"

.->.

«n

Cl*m hi. (S«rie«l).t

HurtiDown . 1

&-^:;|ss{

o;n ,

0-81

;:|

"—

•■"1

O-B

••"

»■«

K-a

CLiBS IV. I3«ri(. 3).J

— I

iF:iii!-l

i^li

O'M

ST.

■*

m™.

•■'■

o-w

•"

>«

Class V. (Serin *).t

..-.™.

•

:::

udmiatdnn;

0-M

S'tt

■•n

g-lB

■H

M«.

.:.

T«

"-""■"

0«

"■'■

'■"

11*

>MI ■■> tnt, m. n, Id >T, «), 4A Hid «8.

ja;gS!S!ftteWWta'KS5*'l£'fii-5SaS?SMWSSS

and of their Increase whilst Fattening.

LE XX — Estimated amount of constituents stored up in Increase, and of matter
pired. Perspired, or Voided — for 100 dry substance of food consumed, by fattening PioB.

GENERAL PARTICULARS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.

Nam-

hcrofj
Aat-

Dttntion.

DeKiiption of Fattening Food.

GiTon in Limited
QuAatity.

Given
ad libitum.

100 Dry Matter of Food gave—

Stored up in lacreaae.

Mineral
Matter
(ash).*

Nitro-
genous
Com-
pounds
(dry).

Non.
nitro-
genous
Sub-
•fance
(fat).

Total
Dry
In-

Ex-
pired,
Pel-
spired,
or
. Voided.

The Analysed ** Fat Pig." f

wks-daya.
10 0

(Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil meal 8, and barley- \
meal 3 parts ; ad libitum /

0*11

13*80

14*94

85*06

Semes l.X

3
3

None

Indian meal

Indian noeal and bran . . .

|Bean and lentil-meal

0*04

0*09

-0*01

1*54

1*77
1*21

15*«)

16*00
14*95

17*51
17*86
16*15

88*49
88*14
63*85

S
3
3 !

.« 0,

None

Bean and lentil-meal 4 . .

Bran

/Bean and lentil meal and\
I bran J

I I

> Indian meal . . . <

-0*08
0*08
0*07

009

1*17
1*57
1-75

1*85

17*48
1«*7«
M*83

16*59

18*58
18*35
18*68

18*58

81*48
81-65
81*38

81*47

( Bean and lentil meal, Indian-meal, and bran, each \
\ ad libitum j

-001

1*27

15*59

16*84

83' 16

Mean

003

1*51

16-87

17*81

88*19

Series II4

1
1
1

3
3
3
3

None

Barley-meal

Bran

Barley-meal and bran . . .

^Bean and lentil-meal 4

-0*18

0*01

-0*01

-0 08

0*94
1*19
1*15
1*09

17*37
13*49
14*06
14*50

18*18
14*69
15*20
15*56

81*88
85*31
84*80
64*44

3
3

.8 0,

None

Bean and lentil meal . . .

Bran

/ Bean and lentil meal and \
1 bran /

) I

> Barley-meal . .

0*08

-0*08

0*01

-0*13

1*40
1*80
1*40

0*91

15*45
16*81
15*50

17*18

16*87
17*49
16*91

17-98

83*13
88*51
83*09

88*04

/Mixture of bran 1, barley-m«d 8. and bean and)
i lentil meal 3 parts; ad libitum j

0*01

1*31

14*77

16*11

83*88

( Mixture of bran I, bean and lentil meal 8, asid barley- )
\ meal3parts; adlibitom j

0*06

1*66

15*88

17*60

88*40

Means

-0*08

1*23

15*44

16*66

83*34

Series II I. ^

4
4

}••

Driedeod-flih |

Bran and Indian meal )
(equal parti) , . /
Indian meal ....

-0*08
-0*01

1*13
1*60

17*05
19*27

18*18
80*86

81*88
79*14

Means

—004

1*36

18*16

18*49

80*51

Series IV. §

3
3
3
3

10 0

Lentil-meal and bran
Lentil-meal and bran
Lentil-meal and bran

Sngar . . . .
Starch . . . .
Sugar and starch

Lentils, bran, sugar, starch ; each ad libitum

Means

Means of all

Oil
0*13
0*19

0*13

0(18

1*76
1*78
1*82
1*96

1*83

1*44

15*01
16 04
14 13
14*36

14*63

15*81

16*88
16*94
16*08
16*50

83*18
83*06
83*98
83*50

16*60 83*40

1727 , 88*73

^ amount of mineral matter is probably in many cases too low ; see text, p\^ 38. i<, <[^, «s\4 Ai^.
5»r f^irther particulars of the Experiment, see Report of the BritUh AsKcULVotx tot \>M! K.di'swcvcimk^ cA^^ktaka Vsii\<^.
<(>r further partienJars of the Experimentg, see Journal of the Koya\ A«ncu\tuw\ V^fcVsJt^ o\ ^tv^%sA.,;wl. >v« - \l«^4\^
^ttuHberpirtiealMU of the Experiments, see Report of the British Aaaocialdoulot \Xx% ^.^LM«^vt«m«\>xc^'a«\«^»Rfcv« v«»^'

48 On the Composition of Oxen, Sheep^ and PigSj

In the case of both the oxen and the sheep, there is a striking
uniformity in the proportion of the mineral to the nitrogenous
matters of growth. In the pig, not only is the actual amount of
mineral matter much less, but its proportion to the nitrogenous
matters seems to decrease as the animals fatten. Thus, the pro-
portion of mineral matter to 1 of nitrogenous substance was, in
the carcass of the lean ox, 0*31, of the fat ox 0*30, of the store-
sheep 0'30, of the fat sheep 0*30, and of the very fat sheep 0*30.
On the other hand, in the carcass of the store pig^ the propor-
tion of mineral matter to 1 of nitrogenous substance was 0*183,
and in that of the fat j)ig only 0*133. It would appear, there-
fore, that the amount of mineral matter in the increase of the
fattening pig will be less than in that of the sheep, both in pro-
portion to the total increase itself, and to the coincidently accu-
mulated nitrogenous compounds.

When it is remembered that the usual fattening food of the
pig consists largely of ripened seeds, containing comparativelv
little indigestible woody fibre, or immatured vegetable products,
it will not appear surprising that 100 parts of the dry substance
of its food should yield much more dry animal increase than
100 parts of that of the sheep. In the case of the sheep it wis
assumed (as the average of the cases wherein the food was of the
most favourable kinds), that for 100 parts of dry substance con-
sumed, only about 9 parts of dry increase were produced, and
that 91 parts were, in some form, expired, perspired, or voided
Calculated in the same way, there were, in the case of the aoi-
lysed fat pig, only 85 per cent, of the dry substance of the food
expired, perspired, or voided. And, taking the average of the
24 lots of pigs, comprising 80 animals, similar calcalations
show only 82*7 per cent of the dry substance of the food ex-
pired, perspired, or voided.

The relation of the ultimate elements in the total dry matter as-
similated is, of course, very different from that in the total matters
given off in the various ways from the system. It is not within
the scope and object of the present paper to consider the com-
position of the matters collectively given out from the body, and
still less to determine the proportions, respectively, expired bj
the lungs, perspired by the skin, or voided in the liquid and
solid excrements. Some illustration of the difference in ultimit^
composition, between the dry substance of the food, and that of
the increase produced from it, will be brought to light in what
now follows.

3. Relation of the Fat stored up in the Increase^ to the ready^crmti
Faty and other constituents^ consumed in the foody ^

In the majority of tVie experiments with the pigi» iht amount
of ready-formed fatty maUjeT vn \3^e IwA ^q^ ^sXens&aedL Cenr

and of their Increase whilst Fattening, 49

paring this with the estimated amount of fat in the increase, it
appears (see Table XVIII.), that there were, on the average, 4
to 5 times as much fat stored up as there was so supplied in
the food. In the case of the analysed fat pig, the result was
obtained in as direct a manner as the nature of the question
admits oi ; and it appeared that 405 parts of fat were stored up,
fdr 100 parts consumed in food. The average of the other
experiments shows 472 parts of fat in increase, for 100 of it
readj-formed in food.

It seems not improbable that fat may be produced in the
animal body by the aid of the products of transformation within
it of nitrogenous compounds. But it is probable, that at least
the main source of the produced fat is the rion-nitrogenous con-
stituents of the food. Of these, particularly in the fattening
food of the pig, the most prominent item is starch. We adopt
this substance, therefore, as the basis of the illustrations of the
probable amount of the constituents of the food involved in
the formation of the produced fat, in the experiments in ques-
tion.

For practical purposes it may be assumed, that 2^ parts of
sturch will be required for the formation of 1 part of the mixed
fats of the animal body, when these have their source in that
substance. If fat be formed from nitrogenous compounds, a less
amount of the dry substance of the food will then be required
for the formation of a given amount of fat, than when it is pro-
duced from starch. If sugar be the source of the fat, a slightly
larger quantity than of starch will be required. Of the pectine
bodies, again, which enter so largely into the roots that fre-
quently constitute a large proportion of the fattening food of
oxen and sheep, the quantity required would be still more than
of sugar.

Table XXI. shows — the estimated amount of fat stored up in
increase for 100 dry matter of food ; the amount of ready-formed
fat in the food ; the amount of fat that must have been produced
from other compounds ; and the amount of starch required if
the produced fat were formed from it — in the cases of the nume-
rous experiments with pigs.

It is estimated that, in the case of the single analysed fat pig,
100 dry substance of the fattening food gave 13*2 parts offcU in
increase. Of this, only 3*26 parts could have been derived
from ready-formed fat in the food, even supposing the whole so
supplied had been taken up. At least 9 '94 parts must, there-
fore, have been formed in the body of the animal from some
other constituent or constituents. If the constituent in question
were starchy it would require (at the rate of 2J parts starch
for 1 of fat) 24*8 parts of that substance for the formation

On the Composition of OxeOy Sheep^ and Piffs,

Taulk XXT. — Showing the amount of Fat stored up in the Increase of Fatten
Pigs for 100 of Dry Matter of Food consumed, the proportion of Fat alw
formed in the Food, the amount of Fat that must have been produced liom ri
compounds, and the amount of jStarch that would be required if the produced
were fonned from it.

GENERAL PARTICULARS OF TIIE EXPERIMEM'I^.

For 100 Drjr Matter oTFw

Nam-

berof

Ani-

mala.

Duration.

Description of Fattening Food.

Total

Fat

in In.

Fat

already

formed

in the

Food.

Fat

dWMd

from
Sunk.

ax.

1
n

Pens.

Given in Limited
Quantity.

GiTen
ad libitum.

The Analysed "Fat Fig."*

vrkB.da7s.
10 0

Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil meal 2, and)
barley-meal 3 part^t ; ad libitum i

is-ao

S*S6

Series I.f

9-M

2
4

3
3
3

>> 8 0 <<

None

Indian-meal . . . .
Indian-meal and bran

None

Kean and lentil meal . .

Bran

I Bean and lentil meal, and
1 bran

}

Bean and lentil meal

> Indiau'ineal

( Bean and lentil meal, Indian-meal, and bian, each \
\ ad libitum /

Mean*

lyss

16*00

l7-«
16-78
Ift-SS

16 -S9

16 M

S'fO
3-66
4-M

6*16
5-43
6*31

5-64

4-63

16 27 4-n

Series Il.f

is*o«

IS-M

1011

11-9

ira

ICM
lO'S

10*M

ii-s 1

9&I0
U&12

6
6

8 0 <

None

Barley-meal . . . .

Bran

Barley-meal and bran

None

B^an and lentil meal . . .

Bran

i Bean and lentil meal, and
i bran

Bean and lentil meal '

Barley-meal

f Mixture of bran I , l«rley-meal 2. and bean and
I lentil meal 3 parts; ad libitum

{Mixture of bran 1, bean and lentil meal 2, and
barley-meal 3 parts ; ad libitum

Means

17-37
13*49
14*06
14*90

15*45
16-21
15-dO

17*18

14-77
I»*Wl

15*44

f-40
2*55

2-65
S*06

2*83

2*81
S*27

8*16

2*98

3*06

S-90

14*91

10-91
11*21
11-41

12-«
19-41
12*11

14*61

n-v

rrm

12-M

Series IILf

4
4

> 8 0

Dried ood-flsb |

Bran and Indianmieal )
(equal parts . . . )
Indian-meal ....

17*00
18*27

ft'60
8-68

11-61
18*9

Means

18*18

lS-9

Means of all

1806

8*88

I2-69

* For ftirther particulars of the Experiments, see Report of the British
Science for 1X32.

t For fiirther particulars of the Experiments, see Journal of the Royal
vol. %ir.t part 2.

tetlM

and of their Increase whilst FaUening. 51

of the 9*94 parts of prodvuxd fat. There would thus be of
ready-formed fat and starch, taken together, 28*11 parts out
of 100 dry matter of food, directly engaged in the storing
up in the body of the 13*2 parts of fat ; if we add to this
1'73 parts of nitrogenous and mineral matters at the same time
fixed in the increase, we have 29*84 parts out of the 100
of dry matter of food, directly contributing, in the sense sup-
posed, to the production of only 14*94 parts of dry increase. In
the particular sense here implied, therefore, only 70*16 parts
out of 100 dry matter of the food would be expired, perspired,
or voided, without thus directly contributing to increase, in-
stead of 85*06 parts — which represents the difference between the
14*94 parts only, of dry substance actually stored up, and 100 of
dry matter of food consumed to produce it.

Following the same line of illustration with all the other ex-
periments with pigs, the average result obtained is, that 100 dry
matter of food gave 16*04 parts of fat stored up, with only 3*96
parts of ready-formed fatty matter in the food. At least 12*08
parts must, therefore, have been formed from other substances.
if jfrom starch, it would require 30*2 parts of that substance for
the formation of the 12*08 parts of produced fat. The ready-
finrmed fat and the starch together would amount to 34*16 parts.
There were, further, 1*36 part of nitrogenous and mineral
matters assimilated. In all, therefore, 35*52 parts out of 100 of
gross dry matter of food, contributed in this comparatively direct
manner, to the formation of 17*3 parts of g^oss dry increase.

It will be observed that, assuming starch to be the source of
the produced fat, as above described, there were almost exactly
2 parts of dry substance of food thus directly engaged in con-
tributing to the formation of 1 part of dry increase. It appears,
too, that in the case of pigs fed on good fattening food, about
one-third of the whole dry substance consumed may be so
devoted. About two-thirds therefore will, if at all, only in a
less direct manner, contribute to the production of increase.
Of this a large proportion will serve, more or less directly, for
respiration only, or for the supply of material for the transforma-
tions constantly going on in the body independently of any
permanent increase in its solid substance ; and, besides the
matters voided as indigestible and necessarily effete, a quantity
of digestible constituents, larger or smaller according to the
character of the food, and to the excess of it consumed, will pass
off unused and comparatively unchanged.

From a knowledge of the general character of the fattening
food of both oxen and sheep, considered in relation to the amount
of increase it yields, and to the probable composition of that
increase, it may be concluded that, in their case as well as in

52 On t/t€ Composition of Oxen^ Sheep^ and PiffMy

that of pigs, a considerable amount of fat will frequently be
formed in the body from other constituents of the fcxKl. As has
been seen, however, only about half as much fat, or total dry
increase, is obtained from 100 of die dry substance of the fatten-
ing food of oxen and sheep, as of that of pigs. There will, in
fact, be a far less proportion of the dry matter of the food of the
former than of the latter animals, appropriated in the (so to
speak) direct production of increase.

It appears then, that a considerable proportion of the Jat — of
which die increase of the so-called fattening animals so largely
consists — may he formed in the body from other ccnstituents of the
food. Of the nitrogenous compounds, on the other hand, it is
probable that frequently as little, and even less, than 5 per cent
of the whole consumed, will be found finally stored up in the
increase of the animal. In fact, if the animals are to store up
as much as they can do of matters not containing nitrogen, a
very large amount of nitrogen must pass through the body,
beyond that which is finally retained in the increase.

Since it is found, that by far the larger proportion of the solid
increase of the fattening animals is really ^af itself; — since it is
probable, that at least a great part of the fat stored up in the
body is derived from starchy and other 7Ww-nitrogenous constitu-
ents of the food ; — since so large an amount of non-nitrogenoas
constituents is required to meet the respiratory demands of the
system ; — and since the current fattening foods contain so veiy
much more of nitrogen than is eventually retained in the in-
crease— it can hardly excite surprise that the comparative value
of focxls, as such^ does not depend upon their percentage of
nitrogenous compounds. Practically — provided die amount of
nitrogenous compounds \)c not actually deficient, which in or-
dinary fattening foods is seldom the case — the amount of ia-
crease is much more frequently dependent on the proportion in
the food of the digestible and assimilable 7?on-nitrogenous com-
pounds, than on that of the nitrogenous ones. It would, in fact,
be more nearly true to say that, in our current food-stulTs, the
digestible and assimilable non-nitrogenous constituents are ge»
nerally in relative defect, than to say that the digestible and
assimilable nitrogenous compounds are so.

As, however, the manure from highly nitrogenous foods is the
most valuable, it frequently becomes the interest of the farmer,
having regard to it, to purchase and use those having the
higher amounts of nitrogen.

The comparative values of food-stuffs, even €U suchj are, however,
not to be unconditionally determined by the percentage ot either
the total nitrogenous or total non-nitrogenous constituents. The

and of their Increase whilst Fattening. 53

rds of the numerous ultimate analyses of foods which have
1 hitherto made, are, it is true, of high value and interest in
itistical point of view. But now possessing them, as the
I of certain general estimates, the next desideratum is — to
line more closely into the nature and condition of the prox-
je compounds of food-stuffs — to distinguish those which are
stible and assimilable from those which are not so — to de-
line the relative values of the comparable or mutually
iceable portions — and above all, to fix our standards of com-
tive value with more of reference to direct experimental
ence on the point, and to existing knowledge of the com-
tion of animal bodies, than has been hitherto usual, or even
ible.

he main conclusions from the whole inquiry may be briefly
aerated as follows : —

I. — Food and Increase.

Fattening oxen, fed liberally upon good food, composed of
3derate proportion of cake or com, some hay or straw chaff,
I roots or other succulent food, and well-managed, will, on the
age, consume 12 to 13 lbs. of the dry substance of such mixed
, per 100 lbs. live-weight, per week ; and should give 1 lb.
icrease for 12 to 13 lbs. dry substance so consumed. Sheep
ining under somewhat similar circumstances (but with a

proportion of hay or straw), will consume about 15 lbs. of
dry substance of the mixed foods, per 100 lbs. live-weight,
week ; and should yield, over a considerable period of time,
art of increase in live-weight for about 9 parts of the dry
itance of their food. If the food be of good quality, oxen
sheep may give a maximum amount of increase for a given
'unt of total dry substance of food, even provided the latter
ain as much as 5 parts of total non-nitrogenous to 1 of nitro-
>us compounds.

. Pigs, fed liberally upon food composed chiefly of com, will
nime from 26 to 30 lbs. per 100 lbs. live- weight, per week, of
dry substance of^such food. They should yield 1 part of in-
se in live-weight for 4 to 5 parts of the dry substance of the
. They may ^\\e a maximum amount of increase for a
xi amount of dry substance of such food, if it contain as
;h as 5 or even 6 parts of total non-nitrogenous to 1 of
3genous compounds.

rhe cereal grains contain on the average rather more than
LTts of total non-nitrogenous to 1 of nitrogenous compounds ;
the leguminous seeds often not much more than 2 parts to 1.

54 On the CampoiiHan of Oxerif Sheep j and Piffs,

Oilcakes and foreign com contain rather more than six-aeventhst
and home-grown com, hay, &c., rather less than six-sevenths, of
their weight, of ^'dry substance." Common turnips generally
contain about one-twelfth ; swedes about one-ninth ; mangolds
about one-eighth, and potatoes about one-fourth, of their weight
" of dry substance."]

3. With as much as 5 or 6 parts of total non-nitrogenous
to 1 of nitrogenous compounds, in the dry substance of the fat-
tening food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, the increase will probably
be very fat. In the earlier stages of growth and feeding, a
lower proportion of total non-nitrogenous to nitrogenous com-
pounds is desirable.

4. Taking into consideration the^ cost of the foods, and the
higher value of the manure from those which are rich in nitro-
gen, it is frequently the most profitable for the farmer to employ
— even up to the end of the feeding process — a higher pro-
portion of nitrogenous constituents in his stt>ck-foods, than is
necessary to yield the maximum proportion of increase in live
weight for a given amount of dry substance of food.

II. — PROPaRTioN OF Parts.

1. In proportion to tlieir weight — oxen contain considerably
more of stomachs and contents than sheep, and sheep con-
siderably more than pigs ; pigs considerably more of intestines
and contents than sheep, and sheep more than oxen. Oxen,
sheep, and pigs, have nearly equal proportions of the other
internal organs : namely, heart and aorta, lungs and windpipe,
liver, gall-bladder and contents, pancreas, and milt or spleen,
taken together. They have also nearly equal proportions of
blood ; but the pig rather the least.

2. In proportion to their weight — sheep yield rather more in-
ternal loose fat than oxen, and pigs very much less than either.

3. As oxen, sheep, and pigs mature and fatten, the internal
organs increase in actual xceigM ; but they diminish in proportUm
to tfie weight of tlie animaL

4. Of the internal offal parts, the loose fat alone increases both
in actual weight and in proportion to the weight of the body, as
the animals mature and fatten.

5. As oxen, sheep, and pigs mature and fatten, the total
^^ oflal " increases in actual weight, but diminishes in porportioa
to the weight of the body ; the ^^ carcasses " increase both in
actual weight, and in proportion to the weight of the body.

6. Well bred, and moderately fattened oxen, should yield 58
to 60 per cent carcass in fasted live-weight ; excessively fat oxen
may yield from 65 to 70 per cent Moderately fiittened theep
(shom) should yield about 58 per cent carcass in &sted life*

and of their Increcue whilst Fattening. 55

weight ; excessively fat sheep may yield 64 per cent., or more.
Moderately fat pigs, killed for fresh pork, should yield (including
head and feet) about 80 to 82 per cent carcass in fasted live-
weight; large, well-fattened pigs, fed for curing, will yield a
considerably higher proportion. In each of the three descriptions
of animal, the proportion will, however, vary much according
to breed, age, and condition.

7. Of the increase over the final 6 months of liberal feeding,
of moderately fat (1 J to IJ year old) sheep, 65 to 70 per cent,
may be reckoned as saleable carcass. Of the increase over the
final 6 months of liberal feeding, of very fat (If to 2 years old)
sheep, 75 to 80 per cent may be reckoned as saleable carcass.
Of the increase over the final 2 or 3 months of liberal feeding of
moderately fat pigs, about 90 per cent, (including head and feet)
may be reckoned as saleable carcass.

8. When the fattening food of oxen, sheep, and pigs, contains
less than about 5 parts of non-nitrogenous to 1 of nitrogenous
compounds, the proportion of gross increase for a given amount
of dry substance of the food, will not increase with the increased
proportion of nitrogenous compounds ; the proportion of carcass
to the live-weight will probably be somewhat less ; and the car-
casses themselves will be somewhat more bony and fleshy, and
less fat.

III. — Chemical Composition of the Animals.

1. Of total dry substance (excluding contents of stomachs and
intestines), the entire body of a fat calf contained about 34 ; of a
fat ox 48|^ ; of a fat lamb nearly 44 ; of a fat sheep about 50 ; of
a very fat sheep nearly 60 ; and of a moderately fat pig about 55,
per cent Of leaner animals, the body of a half-fat ox contained
40 J, of a store sheep 36f, and of a store pig 39f , per cent, of
total dry substance.

2. Of dry nitrogenous compounds^ the entire body (including
therefore, besides flesh, the pelt, hair or wool, bones, and in-
ternal organs), of a fat calf contained about 15 J ; of a fat
ox 14J ; of a fat lamb 12J ; of a fat sheep 12J ; of a very fat
sheep 11 ; and of a moderately fat pig 11, per cent. The store
animals contained from 2 to 3 per cent, more nitrogenous com-
pounds than the corresponding fat ones.

3. Of dry fat J the entire body of a fat calf contained about
14^; of a fat ox 30 ; of a fat lamb 28^ ; of a fat sheep 35 J ;
of a very fat sheep 45J ; and of a moderately fat pig 42, per
cent.

4. In the store condition, the entire bodies of calves will
probably contain from 3 J to 4 per cent ; of oxen from 4^ to 5

56 On the Composition of Oxenj Sheep^ and Pigs^

per cent. ; of sheep from 3 to 3|^ per cent ; and of pigs from
2^ to 3 per cent., of mineral matter,

5. In the fattened condition, the entire bodies of calves and
oxen will probably contain from 3J- to 4 per cent ; those of
lambs and sheep from 2 J to 2f per cent. ; and those of pigs from
1\ to 1% per cent., of mineral matter,

6. The mineral matter of the entire bodies of the animals may
be reckoned to contain, on the average, nearly 40 per cent, of
phosphoric acid, and about 6 per cent of potash.

7. The mean composition of 6 animals analysed in a con-
dition fit for the butcher, shows about 3 per cent mineral
matter, 13 per cent, nitrogenous compounds, and 33 per cent,
fat ; in all, about 49 per cent, total dry substance, and 51 per
cent water, and contents of stomachs and intestines.

8. Even in a reputed store or lean condition, the entire bodies
of oxen, sheep, and pigs, may contain more dry fat than dry
nitrogenous compounds.

9. The entire body of a moderately fat ox contained more
than twice as much ; that of a fat lamb more than twice as
much ; that of a fat sheep nearly three times as much ; that of a
very fat sheep four times as much ; and that of a moderately fat
pig nearly four times as much, dry fat as dry nitrogenous com-
pounds.

10. The proportion of mineral matter in the bodies of oxen,
sheep, and pigs, rises and falls with that of the nitrogenous
compounds.

11. The carcasses of moderately fat beef will probably contain
from 50 to 65 per cent. ; of moderately fat mutton from 55 to 60
per cent ; of very fat mutton 65 per cent or more ; of mode-
rately fat pigs 60 to 65 per cent. ; and of very fat pigs more still,
of total dry substance. The carcasses of fat lamb about 50 per cent ;
and veal carcasses only from 35 to 40 per cent, of total dry sub-
stance.

12. The carcasses of moderately fat beef will probably contain
from 2 to 2^ times ; of moderately fat mutton from 3 to 4 times ;
of very fat mutton from 5 to 6 times ; of pigs killed for fresh
pork about 4 times, and of pigs fed for curing, a considciablj
larger proportion, of fat to 1 of nitrogenous compounds.

IV. — Composition of Increase.

1^ The increase of liberally fed oxen^ over 6 months or more
of the final fattening period, will probably consist of 70 to
75 per cent, total dry substance ; of which, 60 to 65 parts will
be fat, 7 to 8 parts nitrogenous compounds, and about 1^ part
mineral matter.

and of t/ieir Increase whilst Fattening* 57

2. The increase of liberally fed sheep^ over 5 or 6 months of
the final fattening period, will probably consist of 75 per cent
or more, of total dry substance ; of which, 65 to 70 parts will
be fat, 7 to 8 parts nitrogenous compounds, and about If part
mineral matter.

3, The increase of pigs fed for fresh pork, over the 2 or 3
final months on fattening food, will probably consist of 67^ to 72-1
per cent total dry substance ; 60 to 65 per cent fat, 6^ to
8 per cent, nitrogenous substance, and considerably less than
1 'per cent mineral matter. The increase over the last few
months of high feeding, of pigs fed for curing, will contain
considerably higher percentages of fat and total dry substance,
and lower ones of both nitrogenous compounds and mineral
matter, than that of more moderately fattened animals.

V. — Relation of Constituents in Increase to Consti-
tuents CONSUMED.

1. Sheep, fattening for the butcher on a good mixed diet, will
seldom carry off more than 3 per cent, of the consumed mineral
matter. The exact proportion will depend very much on the
proportion of the mineral matter to the digestible organic con-
stituents of the food. They will probably carry off less than
5 per cent of the consumed nitrogen, if the food be com-
paratively rich, and more than 5 per cent, if it be compara-
tively poor, in nitrogen. They should store up about 10 parts
of fat for every 100 parts of non-nitrogenous substance con-
sumed.

2. Pigs, liberally fed on fattening food, will probably carry
off from 6 to 10 per cent, of the consumed nitrogen. TTie pro-
portion will be the less the richer the food, and the greater
the poorer the food in nitrogen. They shoul^ store up about
20 parts, or more, of fat, for every 100 parts of non-nitrogenous
substance consumed.

3. Sheep, fattening for the butcher on a good mixed diet,
should give about 9 parts dry increase — consisting of about 8
parts fat, 0*8 to 0*9 part nitrogenous substance, and about 0*2
part mineral matter — for 100 parts total dry substance consumed.
More than 90 parts of the consumed dry substance are, therefore,
expired, perspired, or voided.

4. Pigs, liberally fed on fattening food, should give 15 to
18 parts of dry increase — consisting of 13 to 16 parts fat, 1^ to 2
parts nitrogenous substance, and less than 0*2 part mineral
matter — for 100 parts total dry substance consumed. There will,
therefore, be 82 to 85 parts of the consumed dry substance, ex-
pired, perspired, or voided.

58 On the Composition of Oxen^ Sheep^ and Pigs, Sfc.

5. Pigs were found to store up 4 to 5 times as much fat ^s
was supplied ready formed in their food. If the produced f^t
were formed from starch, about 2J parts would be required fi^f
the formation of 1 part of fat. If the fat were so formed, abowt
one-third of the total dry substance of the fattening food would
contribute • in a pretty direct manner to the formation of about
half that amount of dry increase. In the sense here supposed,
only about two-thirds (instead of 82 to 85 per cent.), of the dry
substance of the food, would be expired, perspired, or voided,
without directly contributing to increase.

The comparative values of our current fattening food-stuffs, <u
a source of saleable animal increase^ depend more on their amount
of digestible and assimilable Tion-nitrogenous, than on that of the
nitrogenous constituents. But, a>s a source of manure^ their value
will be the greater, the higher their proportion of nitrogenous
compounds.

Ix>nclon :
Prinied by Wiluax Cu>we8 and Soks, Stamford Street,
and Charing Croas.

Re-printed from the Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society,

Vol XII., J). 54, 1860.

DISCOURSE

ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL PORTION OF
OUR FOOD, AND ON ITS RELATIONS TO BREAD.

By J. H. Gilbert, Ph. D., F.C.S.

(Abstract).

It has been pretty generally maintained, that the comparative
values of our stock-foods, as such, are determinable chiefly by the
proportion of nitrogenous constituents which they contain. The
results of experiments on the ** feeding" or ** fattening" of animals
for the purpose of human food, do not bear out this conclusion. It
lias been further pretty generally assumed, that, in the admixture
of animal food with om- otherwise chiefly farinaceous diet, the nitro-
genous, or so-called " flesh-forming constituents," are increased
in their proportion to the more purely respiratory and fat-forming
csapacity of the food. It was submitted, that such an explanation
of the benefits derived by the admixture of our animal with our
staple vegetable aliments, is not admissible.

The experimental data upon which the Discourse was founded,
liad been collected by Mr. Lawes and Dr. Gilbert in the course
of a lengthened inquiry,* the mam objects of which had been to
determine, with a view to the agricultural bearings of the subject,
t^he relations of the constituents consumed in the food of fattening
sanimals, to those stored up in their bodies as increascy on the one
liand, and to those voided as manure , on the other. So far, how-
over, as the composition of the animals was adequately determined
lor the purposes of such an inquiry, the results would also afford
some insight into the characters, and composition, of the food sup-
3plied to man in the bodies of the fed and slaughtered animals. The
^average composition of wheat-flour bread had also been carefully
determined. The means of comparing with one another, our
staple animal and vegetable foods, were thus at command.

The weights of the carcasses, and of the several internal organs
^nd other separated parts, had been determined in the case of

* See *' Ezperimental Inquiry into the Composition of some of the Animab fed
«nd slaughtered as Hmnan Food." — By J. B. Lawea, Esq., F.B.S., and J. H. Gilbert,
^h. D. — Prooeedings of the Boyal Society, Vol. ix., p. 848 ; and for fall details —
*'The Transactiona of the Boyal Society/*

2 GILBERT, ON

several hundred animals — bullocks, sheep, and pigs — which were
selected for slaughtering in different conditions of maturity and
fatness. It appeared that, whilst the internal organs — or, so to
speak, the machinery employed in the production of the meat-
increased considerably in actual weight, during the ** feeding "or
** fattening " period, yet they diminished in proportional amount
to the whole body, or to the carcass. That is to say, it was the
carcass — the most important edible portion — that increased the
most rapidly.

To ascertain more exactly, the composition of our slaughtered
animals, and of their increase whilst fattening, 10 animals, of dif-
ferent descriptions, and in different conditions of maturity, had
l)een devoted. In these, the amounts of water, mineral matter,
nitrogenous substance, and fat, had been determined ; (1) in the
entire carcasses; (2) in the collective ** offal" parts; (3) in the
entii'e bodies. The results showed, that the largest item in the drj
or solid substance of the animal bodies was/a f ; and that by far th«
largest proportion of that in the whole bodies, w^as foimd in the
carcass jmrts. The carcasses of well-fattened animals (those of
calves excepted) appeared to consist of fat to the extent of froD^
one-thu'd to one-half of theii' entire weight. The percentage oi
fat in both carcass and offal parts, but especially in the former,
increased very considerably during the feeding period, whilst th^^**
of the nitrogenous substance diminished. Excluding the calf, tb^
entii'e bodies, in a condition of fatness fit for human food, consisted
of about one-third, and sometimes of considerably more than on^'
third, of pure dry fat. The dry nitrogenous substance, on fcb^
other hand, even including that of the wool in the case of tb^
sheep, amounted to less than one-half, and sometimes to less thaii^
one-third as much as the dry fat.

Applying the results to calculate the composition of the increase
of animals liberally fed on fattening food, it appeared that tbi^
would probably consist of nearly three-fourths dry solid substance-
Little less than two-thirds of the gross increase of highly f<^
animals would be fat itself ; and 6 to 8 or 9 per cent, only, dry
nitrogenous substance. It was calculated that, frequently no*
more than 5, and seldom, if ever, as much as 10 per cent., of th^
nitrogenous substance of the fattening food, would be SbbSIJ^
stored up in the increase of the animal. In some cases of ezpers-'
ments with pigs, it was estimated, that more than 4 times as mix^^
fat had been stored up in the increase, as had been supplied retA^

ANIMAL FOOD IN RELATION TO BREAD. 8

ned in the food. Three-fourths of the fat of the increase

therefore been produced, from other constituents of the food.
)tarch were the source of this produced fat, it would require
ut 2j- parts of that substance for the production of 1 part
'at.

'he general conclusions were — that but a small proportion of
increase of a fattening animal was nitrogenous substance ; that

than 10 per cent., and even as little as 5 per cent, of the
•ogenous substance of good fattening food, would probably be
.Uy stored up in the increase ; that the proportion of fat stored

was very much greater than that of nitrogenous substance ;
I, lastly, that the stored up fat would, frequently, involve in its
duction, an amount of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the
d much greater than the weight of the stored up fat itself,
len, in addition to these facts, it was remembered how great
old be the demands upon the non-nitrogenous constituents of
! food, for the maintenance of the respiratory process, it need
•dly excite surprise — that the comparative values of fattening
Is, as such, seemed to be determinable more by their proportion
digestible or available won-nitrogenous, than by that of their
"Ogenous, or assumed flesh-forming constituents. Accordingly,
»erou8 experiments with staple fattening food-stuffs had shown
', both the rate of consumption for a given weight of animal
iin a given time, and the amount of increase in weight pro-
^, had a much closer connection with the amount of non-
>genous, or of total dry organic constituents, than with that of
nitrogenous constituents, in the food supplied. This was
^gly the case when our ordinary cereal grains, and leguminous
^, were compared with one another on the points in question.

i^emained to compare our staple animal foods (produced and
?osed as above described), with our most important vegetable ali-
^ — bread, in relation to the proportion in each, of the Jiesh-form-
to the respiratory ^nA. fat-forming capacity. From a careful
i^deration of what portions of the fattened animals would be, on
^Arerage, consumed, it was estimated that, in the so-applied

* of oxen, there would be from 2 to 3 times, and in those of
^s, sheep, and pigs, frequently more than 4 times, as much dry-
^s dry nitrogenous substance. According to the numerous
tfi of Drs. Watson and Odling, and of Mr. Lawes, and
Gilbert, u-heat-Jlour bread was reckoned to contain from 6 to 7

* of non-nitrogenous to 1 of nitrogenous substance. It might

4 ANIMAL FOOD IN RELATION TO BREAD.

be assumed that, in a certain broad, yet at the same time ad-
mittedly qualified sense, 1 part of fat was equal to 2| parts of the
starch and other non -nitrogenous matters in bread, in point of
respiratory and fat-forming capacity. Adopting this assumption,
it appeared that, in the consumed portions of well-fattened oxen,
the relation of the respii-atory and fat-forming, to the flesh-forming
capacity, would be about the same, and in those of well fattened
lambs, sheep, and pigs, about 1^ time as high, as in the staple
vegetable food — icheat-Jiour bread. Were it granted, that the pro-
portion of the whole fat of the slaughtered animals which was sup-
posed to be consumed, was too high, it must, on the other hand, l)e
remembered, that the nitrogenous substance would contain a con-
siderable proportion of gelatigenous matter, the applicability of
which, for flesh-forming, was, to say the least, doubted. It ap-
peared, therefore, so far as chemical inquiry of the kind in ques-
tion was competent to throw Ught on the point, that on the large
scale, the introduction of animal aliments into our otherwise chieflv
farinaceous diet, did not increase, but diminish, the relation of the
so-called flesh-forming, to the respiratory and fat-forming capacity,
of the collected food. It remained, then, for physiology yet to
provide the true explanation, of the admitted benefits arising from
the admixture of animal food with bread.

London :
Be-prikted by Dunn k Chidoey, 155-157, Kinosland Boad.

1888.

FIFTH REPORT

EXPERIMENTS

HE FEEDING OF SHEEP.

I. AWES, F.R.S., F.C.S, & Dr, J. H. GILBERT, F.R.S.. F.C.S.

LONDON:
•RINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,

AND CHARING CBOSS.

186L

FROM THE
JOURNAL OF THE ROTAL AQRICULTURAL SOCHETT OF ENGLAND,

VOL. XXIL. PART I.

XPERlMEFfS ON THE FEEDING OF SHEEP.

several Reports in this Journal on the Comparative Fattening
lalities of different Breeds of Sheep* — Hampshire and Sussex
owns, Cotswolds, Leicesters, Cross-bred Wethers, and Cross-bred
jves — we have given the particulars of the feeding, with good
tening food, and under cover, of forty or more of each of the
scriptions mentioned, from the age of nine or ten to that of fifteen
sixteen months. When fattened up to this point, about two-fifths
each lot were sold alive ; about two-fifths were slaughtered and
Id dead, and the particulars obtained, relating to the quantity
the meat produced under the system of early and rapid
ttening, were recorded. The remaining animals were removed
[>m the shed to the open field, and fed till Christmas, that is,
r some seven or eight months longer. It is the results of the
eding of these few sheep firom the moderately fat to the very
t omdition which form the subject of the present short com-
innication.

There were thus further fattened —

8 Hampshire Downs,

5 Sussex Downs,

6 Cotswolds,
8 Leicesters,

8 Cross-bred Wethers ^Leicester ram and Southdown ewe),
8 Cross-bred Ewes (Leicester ram and Southdown ewe).

During what may be called the first period of feeding, that is,
'Jti November or December, when the sheep were nine or ten
*>iths old, to the following April or May, when they were fifteen
sixteen months old, and moderately fat^ they received, under
''^ a liberal daily allowance (according to their weight) of
^ke and clover-chaff, and also as many roots as they chose to
» theamountofwhich was weighed. lynrmgihR second period oi
^ng (to which the present Report specially refers) the reserved

* Journal of the Royal Agricnltaral Society of Englaud/ vol. xii., Part 2';
^iii., Part I ; and toI. xvi., Part 1.

B 2

4 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep,

lots above enumerated received from April or May up to tlie
following Christmas, in the field, the same amount of oilcake*
in proportion to their weight as formerly ; and, in addition, hay-
chaff and roots at the commencement of the period ; then green
clover or grass during the three summer months, from the earlj
part or middle of June to the early part or middle of September;
and then again, hay-chaff and roots, up to the termination of the
experiment.

After a few general observations on the progress made in this
second period, we propose to call attention to the comparative
amounts of food consumed, and to its comparative productiveness,
during the "first" and "second" periods respectively — that is,
from the store to the moderately fat condition in the one case, and
from the moderateh/ fat to the very fat in the other.

The sheep were weighed monthly ; and it was found that
every one of the lots, in fact almost every animal of these
previously house-fed and moderately fat sheep, lost weight, more
or less, under the exposure to the heat and drought of summer,
when feeding in the field upon clover or grass, notwithstanding
that they had at the same time a fair allowance of oilcake also.

The Hampshire and Sussex Downs were fed through the
summer and autumn of 1851. From May 8 to June 19 thcj
had, besides oilcake, hay-chaff and roots. From June 19 thej
were turned for three months upon green clover. During the
first month of the three the weather was very hot, and there was
l(»ss than the average fall of rain. Both lots lost weight, the
Hampshires U>sing the most. In the second month, with com-
paratively mcxlorate heip^ht and range of temperature, but still
little rain, the Hampshires gained pretty well,, but the Sussex
sheep still lost a little. In the third mouth, which was not hot,
but continued dry, both lots lost again. The result was that,
over the whole three months during which the sheep were fed
upon green clover, as much as they chose to eat, with oilcake in
addition, the eight Hampshires only gained 6 lbs., whilst die
eight Sussex sheep taken together lost 22 lbs.

The Cotswolds were fed through the summer and autumn of 1852.
From April 17 to June 14 they received, besides oilcake (or lentils),
hay-chaff and roots. On June 14 they were put upon grass and
were kept upon it for three months, having the usual allowaDce,
according to their weight, of oilcake (or lentils) in additioa
During the first of these three months the temperature was more
moderate, both in height and range, and the fall of rain was

* The Cotswolds bad lentils instead of oilcake during a considenible portioB of
llie ** second" period of feeding:.

Experiments on the Feeding of Slieep, 5

rather higher, than in the corresponding month of 1851. Still
the sheep lost considerably. During the next two months the
temperature was generally higher than in the other years of
experiment, but the fall of rain was considerable; and during
these two months the 6 Cotswolds so far regained as to reduce
the loss of weight over the three months to 7 lbs. on the lot of
sheep. In the next succeeding two months every one of the
6 sheep gained very considerably.

It was during the summer and autumn of 1853 that the
Leicesters, and the two lots of cross-breds, were turned out.
They had oilcake, hay-chaff, and roots, from April 21 to June 7.
For two months from June 7 they were fed upon grass, and
then for about six weeks upon green clover, with oilcake, as
usual. During the first month upon grass, commencing June 7,
both the height and range of temperature were lower, and th<^
fall of rain was larger, than during the corresponding period
of the two preceding years. Still the Leicesters lost a little,
and the cross-breds gained but little. In the next month the
temperature was comparatively low, but the fall of rain was
very large, and all three lots lost weight more or less — the cross-
bred wethers losing the most During the next or third month,
with only moderate height and range of temperature, but with
icery little rain succeeding the previous heavy fall, all three lots
regained considerably. The result was that, taking the whole of
the three summer months of 1853, during which the temperature
was generally much lower, and the fall of rain more liberal, than
in the two other seasons, the Leicesters and cross-breds gave a
very mtich better rate of increase than did either the Hampshire
or Sussex sheep during the corresponding summer months ot
1851, or the Cotswolds during those of 1852.

It is obvious from the facts just stated, that high temperature
and drought on the one hand, and an excessive fall of rain on the
other, were injurious to the progress of the animals. The result
points to the desirableness of shelter, not only from the more
inclement weather of winter, but from the heat or excessive
lains of summer also. It will presently be seen, how very
large was the amount of food required to produce a given
amount of increase under the circumstances described. Com-
paring, however, the progress of these six lots of sheep, when
turned out during the summer, after having been liberally fed,
under cover, up to a given point of fatness, with that of a few of
several of the lots which were fed in the field the tchole year
through, the result was, that the latter did very much better than
the former through the summer months, arid onwards unto the
time of killing ; so that, over the entire year, they gave nearly the

() Experiments on tJie Feeding of Sheep,

same amounts of increase, in proportion to their weight, as those
which had been the first half of the time under cover ; althoogk,
during the exposure of the previous winter they had increased
much less rapidly, whilst their consumption of food was doubtless
greater.

It is not proposed to enter into the same numerical details in-
regard to these few excessively fattened sheep, as it was thoughts
desirable to do in the reports of their feeding up to a moderate
and more practically useful degree of fatness. The results ar^
already calculated and tabulated for our own reference ; buK^
it is thought that the few general observations made above, as th^?
result of a study of the details, will probably serve every usefuM
purpose, whilst they will occupy much less space,

•

The amounts of food consumed, and of increase jrielded, &c...^
during the " first " and " second " periods of feeding respectively.^
are recorded in Tables I., II., and III.

Table I. gives, for each description of sheep, and for eacl^-
period, the amount of fresh food consumed per head, per week ^
and both the fresh food, and the dry substance of the food (thaC^
is, excluding the moisture it contained) consumed per 100 Ihs^
live weight, per week.

Table II. gives, in like manner, the amounts of firesh food,
dry substance of the food, consumed to produce 100 lbs. increase?
in live weight.

Table 111,, again, shoWs the average weight per bead, at tins?"
commencement, and at the conclusion of the experiment; th^
average increase per head per week ; the average increase
100 lbs. live-weight, per week ; the average weight of
per head ; and the proportion of carcass, and of some of
internal parts, in 100 of live weight

With regard to the estimates gfivcn in the Tables of the amooni
of food consumed during '^Period 2," some explanations
necessary. As already stated, the sheep had, during about
months out of the seven or eight of the whole period, green dovesij
or grass in the field, the amount of which was not weighed ;
it was only when they had not such green food that they
supplied with hay-chaff and roots. Whenever they had hay-c
which was during nearly five months out of the seven or eigh
the quantity consumed was weighed. They had roots for the
time as hay-chaff; and in the cases of the Leicester^ and
breds, these were weighed during the whole four or five months ?
but in the cases of the Hampshires, Sussex, and Cotswolds, tb^
roots were only weighed during two months out of the four or

five that they were employed. The oil-cake (or lentils) w»* J

however, weighed in every case throughout the whole period o(

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Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

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Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 9

feeding. There is no di£Bculty, therefore, in calculating the

amount of oil-cake consumed by the animal in relation to a given

live- weight, or to produce a given amount of increase, during the

-whole seven or eight months of the fee<)ing experiment. With

regard to the hay-chaff and roots, the average rate of consumption

is taken only over the period in which each was actually consumed.

And in the estimates given in Table II. of the amounts of fresh

food, or dry substance of food, consumed to produce 100 lbs.

increase in live-weight, it is asisumed, for the purpose of com- .

parison with the first period of feeding, that the green clover or

grass eaten in the summer months, was equivalent to the hay-chaff

and roots consumed when these were the foods employed. That

is to ssay, in the Table, the green clover or grass is reckoned as

Kay-chaff and roots, in amount bearing the same proportion to

the oil-cake as did the hay-chaff and roots, when these were

actually consumed. The figures given in Tables I. and II. for

the hay-chaff and roots of " Period 2 " must, therefore, be taken

as only approximate estimates. They will probably be slightly

too high, but they are undoubtedly quite near enough for the

purpose of comparing, on the points in question, the results of

the second period of feeding with those of the^r^f.

In Table I., the first division shows that the amount of oil-
cake consumed per head per week was in all cases considerably
greater during the second period than the first. The estimated
consumption per head per week of hay-chaff was also in most of
the cases rather more, though in some less, in the second period ;
and that of the roots was always greater in the second period
than in the first.

The second division, which gives the amounts of the several
foods consumed per 100 Jbs. live^ceight per week, shows that, as .
was intended, the amount of oil-cake consumed by a given
weight of animal within a given time was almost identical for the
two periods ; the estimated amount of hay-chaff was, however,
always less, and that of the roots in some cases less, and in others
more, in the second period than in the first.

But it is in the third division of this Table, which shows the
dry substance of the foods consumed per 100 lbs, live-weigltt per week^
that we have the best comparison afforded between the rate of
consumption during the earlier and the later periods of fattening.
The figures in the last two columns show that, with every one of
the descriptions of sheep, the average proportion consumed was
rather less during the second period ; that is to say, as the
animals became fatter. The difference is, however, but small ;
nor can the whole of it be taken as representing so much less
of real assimilable or respirable matter. The lessened con-

10 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

sumption of dry substance in the second period is chiefly in the
hai/^ which contains a much larger proportion of indigestible
woody-fibre than either of the other descriptions of food ; whibt
the consumption of the dry matter of oil-csJce, which would have
a higher respiratory and nutritive capacity than that of either
of the other foods, was always equal, and sometimes greater, in
the second period than the first

So far then as we may judge of the rate of consumption during
the whole of the extra-fattening period from the results obtained
when the foods were actually weighed, there is but little evidence
of a lessened rate of consumption in relation to the weights of
the animals as they matured. It is very probable, however, that
during the hot season, when the sheep were feeding upon green
clover or grass, their rate of consumption was in reality rather
below, instead of, as we have assumed it, equal to, that of the
other portions of the time. If so, this would somewhat reduce
the average consumption over the whole period, and the average
would then undoubtedly be somewhat lower fqr the second
period than for the first. The evidence must be taken as, upon
the whole, in favour of the conclusion that it was so.

In the case of pigs, it is found that the consumption in pro-
lK)rtion to the weight of the animal decreases very considerably
as it fattens. But the dry substance of the food of the pig contains
a much larger proportion of assimilable and respirable matter, and
a much less proportion of indigestible woody-fibre, than does that
of the sheep. The pig, too, consumes a much larger amount of
dry substance of food, in relation to its weight within a given
time, and gives also a much larger amount of increase for a given
amount of dry substance consumed. We should not expect,
therefore, to find so marked a diminution in the rate of consump-
tion of the fattening sheep, as in that of the fattening pig. Still,
the diminution indicated by the approximate estimates given in
the Table is less than we should have anticipated.

It will presently be seen too, that, at least in these particular
experiments, the amount of increase obtained for a given amount
of food consumed was much less during the second than during
the first period of fattening. Even with pigps, it was found that
there was a slight tendency to give a less amount of grass increase
for a given amount of food consumed as the animal matured.
This diminution was, however, in their case probably com-
pensated for by the increased proportion of real dry or solid
substance in the increase as they matured. Sheep also doobden
give a somewhat less aqueous increase as they fatten. Bat at
any rate in these particular experiments, in which the pt*™*^«
lost weight during a part of the later period of feeding, ibae
was then, compared with tlic earlier one, far too great a dimina-

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 1 1

tion in the proportion of gross increase to food consumed, to be
compensated for by the slightly greater proportion of dry
substance which that increase would contain.*

That the amount of food consumed to a given live-weight
should decrease as the animal matures, might be expected from
the lessened proportion which the respiratory system will bear
to the entire body the more the carctiss increases and fattens.
But, independently of this, it would be anticipated that the
demands of the respiratory system would be less during the
warmer months of Period 2 ; though, during th^ whole of
Period 1 the animals were under cover, and, therefore, protected
from inclement weather.

We come now to a more direct consideration of the com-
parative prodiLctiveness of the food in the Jirst and second periods
of fattening, as illustrated by the approximate estimates given
in Table II.

It appears that, in the case of every one of the six descriptions
of sheep, there was nearly twice as much oil-cake ; in four out
of the six considerably more hay-chaff, or its equivalent ; and in
all cases much more, and in several more than twice as much,
roots ; or, as shown in the two last columns, generally about
If times as much dry substance of the mixed food, required to
produce 100 lbs. of increase during the later than during the
earlier period of feeding.

It is not supposed that, under favourable circumstances, the
productiveness of a given amount of food will diminish so rapidly
with the progress of the animal from the fat to the very fat con-
dition as in the instances here under consideration. Still, the
results of these experiments afford a striking illustration of the
heavy loss that may arise when animals are, from any cause,
allowed to lose weight, especially after they have been once
brought into a condition fit for the butcher. It is obvious, too,
that they may lose under the most liberal system of feeding, if
their comfort in other respects be not duly provided for. It is
true that the sheep kept out of doors all the year round, did not
suffer during the summer months so much as those which h^d
been under cover during the previous winter, and were already
riper when turned out. In fact, though the more hardily treated
sheep increased very much less during the winter months,
over the whole year they increased nearly as much as those
which had been housed during nearly the first half of the time,
and had then increased so rapidly. But, doubtless, the nearly

* For estimates of the character and composition of the increase daring different
periods of fattening, the reader is referred to our Report in the last number of the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. xxi., part 2.

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep,

equal total increase of the entirely field-fed sheep was, as already
observed, obtained at the expense of a much larger proportional
consumption of food during the exposure of the early part of
their feeding.

This comparison of the results of experiments on the excessive
fattening of sheep — whether for the most part housed, or fed in
the field throughout — with those obtained when they are only
moderately fattened, clearly points to the great economy of food
attained by adopting a system of early and rapid fattening.

In the second main division of Table III., which shows the
average increase per week, both per head, and per 100 lbs.
live-weighty irrespectively of the amounts of food consumed, we
have again strikingly brought to view the great diflFerence in
the rate of progress of the animals during the two periods of
feeding. Notwithstanding the much greater weights of the
sheep during the second period, not one of the lots gave so much
increase per head per week then, as during the earlier period ;
and calculated in relation to 100 lbs. live-weight, instead of
per head, it was, in every case, only about half as much in the
later stage of feeding.

Table III. shows, however, that these extra-fattened sheep
gave the greater proportion of carcass to live weight ; and, that
the condition of their carcasses was such as is more valued at
the Christmas markets than that of the more moderately-fed
animals, is freely granted. But the practical question arises—
Is the extra price obtained equivalent to what will frequently
be the extra cost of prcxluction r We think certainly not

The following table shows the average weights of the carcasses
of the different lots, both in the moderately fat, and in the very
fat condition, reckoned both in stones of 8 lbs., and in lbs. per
quarter : —

Table IV.

Hampshire Downs
Sussex Downs
Cotswolds . .
Leicesters
Cross-bred wethers
Cross-bred ewes . .

CarcaM, in Stones of 8 Ibd.

Moderately
Fat.

stones. IbH.

12
9

12
9
9
8

6
5
5
4
2
6

Very Fat,

stones, lbs.

17
IS
18
U
14
13

6
2
5
4
0
5

CarcdM, in Ibe. per Quartp*'-

Mod(*rately
Fat.

VeiyFak

Iba.

19}

25}

18}

17}

35}

37J
29
2S
271

The above weights of the meat yielded by the " moderately-fai
sheep, at an age of fifteen or sixteen months, are equal to
formerly obtained at twice the age, or more ; and they

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheej). 13

satisfactory examples of what may be attained under the
modern system of feeding, adapted to the production of mutton
on a large scale. It may be doubted, indeed, whether equal
weights and fatness can be attained at an earlier age, or greater
weights and fatness at so early an age, without a sacrifice
of quality. In fact, although it is only by a system of early
and rapid fattening that sufficient meat can be produced for
the masses of the population, it must be admitted that mutton
thus early matured does not so well satisfy the limited demand
of the connoisseur as that which is less artificially produced.

The weights of the " very fat " carcasses, in spite of the loss of
weight of many of the animals during part of the second period,
were, after all, really heavy for sheep that were two or three
months short of two years old. The demand for mutton so iat
as it will become at an age of more than eighteen months, under a
system of early and sustained high feeding, is, however, but
limited ; and it is only exceptionally, and when sold at a fancy
price, that it can be as profitable to the producer as that which
is more moderately fattened.

The feeder should not lose sight of the fact that, so long
as an animal lives, the expenditure of the constituents of food
by the respiratory process is never stopped. If it has reached the
point at which the increase it yields declines in amount, or in
value, in proportion to the food consumed, further increase will
obviously be obtained at a larger proportional expenditure of food
in the respiratory process. Or, if the animal at any time do not
gain, or should lose weight, the whole of the food then consumed
is (leaving out the question of the manure) expended to no other
purpose than to keep the machine of the body in working order ;
and the whole of the food so consumed and expended, as well as
that which actually yielded increase, has to be reckoned against
the total increase obtained.

The last two columns of Table III. do, indeed, show that the
proportion which the lungs bear to the weight of the whole body
decreases considerably as it matures ; that is to say, as it fattens,
and the proportion of the carcass increases. But the facts relating
to the amounts of food consumed, and of increase yielded, as the
animal matures, are quite adverse to the supposition that there is
any such progressive diminution in the expenditure by the respi-
ratory process for a given live- weight, as can at all compensate
for the lessened proportion of increase which it yields with
advancing maturity.

Upon the whole, it is concluded that there is a considerable
economy of food in the system of early and rapid fattening of
sheep ; and that, after the animals have . attained a moderate

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep,

degree of fatness, it will seldom be profitable, and may fi
cjuently be a loss, to the producer^ to feed them further.

The same remarks will probably apply, mutatis mutandis^
oxen also.

The same rule does hot apply with equal force to pi
The dry substance of the food of pigs is, weight for weig
much more costly than that of the other animals ; but, in th*
case, from the much larger proportion of increase they yield, b<
for a given amount of dry substance of food consumed, and :
a given weight of the body within a given time, it results tl
the amount of constituents expended by the respiratory proc*
bears a considerably less proportion to the gain in weight, tl
in that of either sheep or oxen. Again, their increase consists ii
larger proportion of fat ; and by the fatness of the meat its qual
and value are to a great extent determined. On the other hai
not only do the quality and rateable value of mutton and b
reach their maximum, or nearly so, at a comparatively limit
degree of fatness, but it appears that the amount of constituei
expended by respiration increases more rapidly in proporti
to a given weight of saleable increase as the animals progress
fatness.

London;

Printed by Wiluax Clowu and Son, StamfiNil Street,
and Ghuing CitMS.

REPORT OF EXPERIMENTS

ON THE

TTENING OF OXEN,

AT WOBURN PARK FARM.

LA WES, F.E.S, F.C.S., & Dr. J. H. GILBEET, F.R.S., F.C.S.

LONDON:
INTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,

AND CHABINO CB0B8.

1861.

FROM THE
JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENQLASI^

VOL. XXn.. PART L

ON THE FATTENING OF OXEN.

. S49, after we had commenced numerous experiments with
p, and some few with oxen and pigs, with a view to de-
line the relations of both the meat and manure produced to
iood consumed to produce them, His Grace the late Duke of
ford kindly placed at our disposal, for the purposes of our
iry, his numerous feeding boxes and fattening oxen. The
ivitages at Wobum were, the selection from, and dealing with
3 numbers of animals, and the facility afforded by the box
5in for the collection and preservation of the manure — to de-
ime the quantity and composition of which constituted one
artant object of the experiments.

he results were from time to time communicated to His
ce as the experiments proceeded ; but it is to be regretted
the publication of them did not take place before his lamented
b^ It was found, as the inquiries connected with the feeding
umals extended and ramified, and the results accumulated,
It would be necessary to arrange them for publication under
• separate heads, which should be treated of somewhat in
^ as follows : First, those relating to the amounts of food, or
pveral constituents, consumed by a given weight of animal
^u a given time, or required to produce a given amount of
8tse in live-weight. Of these we have already given
-rous records in the R. A. S. Journal so far as sheep and pigs
-oncemed ; and in the present number we add a short
t relating to sheep. It is the object of the present commu-
lon to give the results of the experiments with oxen at
Urn, so far as they relate to this first division of the subject,
iius to complete for the present, our reports on that branch
e inquiry. The second main branch of the subject is that
le composition of the animals, and of their increase whilst
aing ; and on this we gave a report in the last number of the
nal, relating to all of the three descriptions of animal— oxen,
p, and pigs. The third branch includes the question of the
position of the manure in relation to that of the food con-
?d ; and upon this we now hope to report in an early sue-
in^ number of the Journal.

4 On the Fattening of Oxen.

In the conduct of the experiments at Wobum our plans were
cordially seconded by Mr. Bennett ; and every facility and assist-
ance were afforded throughout their progress by Mr. G. W. Baker.

Had the object been only to determine the average amoimts of
food, of known composition, consumed in relation to a given
weight of animal within a given time, or required to produce a
given amount of increase in live-weight, it would doubtless have
been desirable to continue each experiment for several mondis ;
so as to get average results unaffected by the incidental circum-
stances of change of food, condition of individual animals, &c.
But owing to the great di£Bculty of dealing with the very large
quantities of manure that would then be involved, eight to nine
weeks was the longest period over which it was attempted to
weigh, and sample carefully for analysis, the food, litter, and dunj?,
of the animals. Hence the results relating to the amount of
increase obtained for food consumed must be taken as applying
only to the few final weeks of high feeding.

Six experiments were made ; one with 1 1 ; one with 12 ; three
with 5 ; and one with 6 animals. The numerical results are
arranged in Tables as follows : —

In Tables F., II., III., IV., V., and VI., the actual weights, and
gain in weight, of each animal.

In Table VII. the total quantities (both fresh and dry), of food
consumed, litter used, and increase and dung obtained, in each
experiment.

In Table VIII. the average amounts (both fresh and dry) of
food, litter, increase, and dung, per head per week.

In Table IX. the average amounts (both fresh and dry) of
food consumed, per 100 lbs. live-weight per week.
* In Table X. the average amounts (both fresh and dry) of food
consumed, to produce 100 lbs: increase in live weight.

In Table XI. is given a summary of the results of the feedifig
of oxen at Wobum, side by side with those obtained by other
experimenters.

In Table XII. the average results of experiments on the feed*
ing of oxen, are compared with similar particulars relating to
sheep and pigs.

In Tables XIII. and XIV. the proportion of the dung obtained
to the food consumed, and litter used.

In the brief remarks which follow attention will be chiefly
oonfined to the amounts of food consumed in relation to a given
weight of animal, and to produce a given amount of inc^reaae ; bat
a few observations will also be made on the amounts of fresh and
dry dung obtained for given amounts of fresh and dry food and
litter used. The question of the campasUicn of the dung, in rels»
tion to that of the food, will be considered on a fature occMioii.

On the Fattening of Oxen,

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On the Fattening of Oxen.

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On tlie Fattening of Oxen. f 7

Experiments on the Fattening of Oxen, at Woburn Park Farm.

Table III. — Weights, and Gain, of each Animal of Experiment 3.

Food. — Oilcake-compoand meal, cooked ; QoTer-hay chaff ; and Swedish Turnips.

(with ''absorbent"}*

Kos.

BrBed.

Actual Weighta, aod GaiD, per Head.

Gain
per Bead,
per Week.

Gain

per 100 lbs.

Llye-welght»

per Week.

Weights,
January 2.

Weights^
Februaiy 28.

Gain
in 57 days.

1
2
3

4
5

Hereford

it ••
f » ••

lbs.
1372
1344
1288
1232
1260

lbs.
1512
1540
1512
1400
1372

lbs.

140

196

224

168

112

lbs.
17«2
24-1
27*5
20*6
13-8

lbs.
1*19
1-67
1-97
1«.57
1«05

Totals ..

6496

7336

840

. .

m •

Means ..

1299

1467

168

20*6

1*49

Table IV. — ^Weights, and Gain, of each Animal of Experiment 4.

Food. — Linseed-Compound meal, cooked ; CloYcr-hay chaff; and Swedish Tomips.

(with "absorbent").

Bread.

Actual Welf^ts, and Gain, per Head.

Gain
per Head,
per Week.

Gain

i)erlOOlbe.

Live-weight,

per Week.

XIOC

Weights,
January 2.

Weights,
February 28.

Gain
In 57 days.

2
3

4
5

Hereford

lbs.
1372
1260
1288
1316
1316

lbs.
1540
1400
1400
1428
1456

lbs.

168

140

112

140

lbs.
20-6
17«2
13-8
13-8
17'2

lbs.
1-42
1-29
1'02
1*00
1*24

Totals ..

6552

7224

672

. •

Means ..

1310

1445

134

16-5

1'20

On the FaXtening of Oxen,

ExrasuMENTs on the Fattening of Oxen, at Woburn Park Farm.

Table Y. — Weights, and Grain, of each Animal of Experiment 5.
Food. — LdDseed-compoand meal, cooked ; GloTer-haj chaff; and Swedish Tnriupf.

Noa.

Breed.

Actual Wel^ts, tad Gain, per Head.

Gain
per Head,
per Week.

Gain

pfT lOOlta.

LlTe.wvifjbt.

per Walk.

Wdghta,
JaQuai7 23.

Welghta,
Febmaiyas.

Gain
inSSdaja.

Iba.

lbs.

Iba.

Ila.

Hereford

1400

1428

6-4

0-39

1316

1400

16-3

1*20

1400

1456

10*9

0-76

1316

1372

10*9

0-81

1344

1428

16-3

1-18

1288

1344

10-9

0-83

Totals ..

8064

8428

364

• •

Means . .

1344

1405

11-8

0*86

Table VI. — Weights, and Gain, of each Animal of Experiment 6.

Food. — Oilcake-compoimd meal, cooked ; CloTer-hay chaff; and Swedish Tmniai.

(with " absorbent").

Nos.

Breed.

Actual Weights, and Gain, pn- Head.

Gain
PsrHaad,
per Weak.

Gals

perlMlba

Live <rf«gll.

per Week

Welgbta,
HardilL

Weights,
AprUlS.

Gain
inasdsji

1
2
3
4
5

Hereford

f »
ft
f »

lbs.
1495
1499
1478
1384
1367

lbs.
1612
1615
1584
1471
1425

lbs.
117
116
106
87
58

Iba.
23*4
23-2
21-2
17-4
11-6

1*51
1'49
1*39
1-22
0*83

Totals ..

7223

7707

484

• a

•.

Means ..

1445

1541

19-4

1*30

On the Fatteninff of Oxen.

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1 J On tlie Fattening of Oxen,

Experiment 1 included 6 Herefords and 5 Devons ; and Ex-
periment 2, 7 Herefords and 5 Devons. The animals were
taken from grass, weighed, and put into the boxes, on September
18, 1849. Those of Experiment 1 were fed upon crushed oil-
cake, clover-hay chaff, and Swedish turnips ; and those of Expe-
riment 2 on a cooked mixture of 2 parts linseed-meal, 2 parts
barley-meal, and 1 part bean-meal, with chaff and roots as in
Experiment 1. During the first period of the experiment, from
September 18 to October 17, the food, litter, and dung were not
accurately weighed. On October 17, the oxen were re-weighed,
and the boxes emptied ; and from this date to the end of the ex-
periments, about the middle of December, the whole of the food
and litter were accurately weighed ; and at the conclusion, the
whole of the dung of each lot was weighed, turned over, well
mixed, and re- weighed. Several samples of 100 lbs. each were
then taken from the heap ; to some of which acid was added to
prevent the loss of ammonia. Fair average samples of all the
foods, and litter, were also taken.

The right hand columns in Tables I. and II., giving the gain
per head per week, and per 100 lbs. live-weight per week, of
each bullock, show, that almost every animal of both the lots
gained much more rapidly during the first liian during the suc-
ceeding two months sifter being put on fattening food. This
shows how important it is not to place too much confidence,
as the basis of average estimates, on results obtained over short
periods of time immediately after considerable changes in the
mode of feeding. The rate of increase over the whole three
months of final fattening, doubtless gives the fairest average.
But as the foods, litter, and dung, were only weighed during the
concluding two months, it will be necessary, in comparing the
results of these experiments with those of &e others, to reckon
the amounts of increase and manure obtained, for given amounts
of food and litter used, only over that concluding period.

The relation of the increase obtained to the food consumed,
will be considered more in detail further on. But before passing
to a description of the food, and of the progress of the oxen, in the
other experiments, attention should be called to the fact that,
over both periods, the oxen of Experiment 2, fed upon the cooked
linseed-compound, increased considerably more in relation to
their weight within a given time, than uiose of Experiment 1,
having uncooked crushed oilcake. In two oUt of the four sab-
sequent experiments oilcake was again used ; but it was now
mixed with barley and bean-meal, and the compound cooked ;
and thus the oilcake was more fairly tried against the cooked
linseed-compound used in the other two of the e^]peri]iients.

Experiments 3, 4, 5, and 6, were made early in 1851 ; all
with Herefords, that \iad \>eew ^\eaA'^ vycck!& Vltdfi time feeding in

On the Fattening of Oxen. 13

Btalls^ on cooked linseed-compound, clover-hay chaff, and roots.
The exact arrangement was as follows : —

Experiment 3, with 5 Herefords ; from January 2, 1851, to
February 28 = 57 days. Food — cooked oilcake-compound meal
(equal weights oilcake, barley, and beans) ; with clover-hay chaff,
and swedes.

Eixperiment 4, with 5 Herefords ; from January 2, 1851, to
February 28 = 57 days. Food — cooked linseed-compound meal
(equal weights of linseed, barley, and bean meal) ; with clover-
hay chaff, and swedes.

Experiment 5, with 6 Herefords ; from January 23, 1851, to
February 28 = 36 days. Food — cooked " linseed-compound
meal"; with clover-hay chaff, and swedes.

Experiment 6, with 5 Herefords, from March 11, 1851, to
April 15 = 35 days. Food — cooked "oilcake-compound meal";
with clover-hay chaff, and swedes.

In Experiment 5, with cooked linseed-compound, straw only
was used as litter, as in Experiments 1 and 2 ; and the manure
was allowed to accumulate under the animals in the usual way,
without any foreign admixture. But in Experiments 3 and 6,
with cooked oilcake-compound, and 4 with cooked linseed-
compound, it was sought to prevent any loss of ammonia that
might otherwise . take place during the accumulation of the
manure in the boxes. To this end a small quantity of a mixture
of 1 part sulphuric acid dried up with 2 parts sawdust, was daily
sprinkled over the manure in the boxes, just before spreading the
fresh litter. This mixture will, for convenience^ be called
absorbent.

Comparing the gain per head, and per 100 lbs. b've- weight,
per week, of the oxen fed from January 2 to February 28,
with cooked oilcake-compound (Table III.), with those fed during
the same period with cooked linseed-compoimd (Table IV.), it is
seen that the oilcake-compound gives considerably the best
result The oilcake-compound also gives a better result in
Experiment 6 (Table VI.), than the linseed-compound in Expe-
riment 5 (Table V.), In fact, oilcake, weight for weight,
should be little inferior as a food to the much more costly lin-
seed, whilst the manure from cake will certainly be more valuable
than that from an equal amount of linseed.

Comparative Proditctiveness of the Foods in the Different

Experiments.

The comparative productiveness of the foods in the different
experiments is more clearly illustrated in Tables VII. — ^X.
inclusive. Table VII. shows the total amounts of food, litter,
increase, and dung (both fresh and dry), for each experiment ;

'14 On the Fattening of Oxen.

and Table VIII. the amounts calculated per head per week. Bat
Table IX., showing the amounts of food (fresh and dry) consumed
per 100 lbs. live-weight, per week, and- Table X. the amounts
required to give 100 lbs. increase in live-weight, aflTord the best
means of comparison.

Taken over the final 8 weeks of fattening, there was more
dry substance of food consumed per 100 lbs. live-weight per week,
and 1 J time more required to yield a given amount of increase
in live-weight, in Experiment 1, with crushed oilcake, than in
Experiment 2, with cooked linseed-compound.

In Experiments 3, 4, 5, and 6, the consumption by a given
■ weight of animal, within a given time, was, of oilcake or linseed-
compound about one fifth less, of clover-chaff 1 J time or more
greater, and of roots a little greater, than in Experiments 1 and 2.
The dry substance of the mixed food of the former would
therefore contain a less proportion of that from the more nutritive
cake or com, and considerably more from the chaff and roots, but
particularly from the chaff. The result was that there was much
more total dry substance of food consumed to a g^ven weight of
animal in Experiments 3, 4, 5, and 6 ; a part of the extra
amount being doubtless due to the larger amount of indigestible
woody-fibre in the chaff.

Experiment 3 with cooked oilcake-compound, and 4 with
cooked linseed-compound were exactly parallel as to the number
of animals and the time of feeding. Taking the average over
the whole period of fifty-seven days, the two lots consumed almost
identical amounts of the dry substance of food per 100 lbs. live-
weight per week ; but it required about one-fourth more with the
linseed than with the oilcake-compound, to yield 100 lbs. increase
in live-weight

Experiment 5 with 6 oxen, and 6 with 5 oxen, were nearly
equal as to the length of time ; though the latter was not com-
menced until a fortnight after the former was concluded. The
oxen of Experiment 6, with the oilcake-compound, consumed
rather less dry substance of food per 100 lbs. live-weight per
week, and yielded much more increase for a given amount coo-
sumed.

Reviewing all six experiments the result was, that the cooked
linseed-compound gave more increase than the merely crushed
oilcake ; but in both the cases in which cooked oilcake-compound
was used, it gave a better result than the cooked linseed-compound.
And, as already observed, the manure from the oilcake-com-
pound would be better than that from the more expensive linseed-
compound.

Again, in all five experiments with cooked food, there was
more increase in live-weight for a given amount of the mixed diy

On the Fattening of. Oxen.

substance consumedy than in the one with uncooked food ; but the
gross or live increase from the uncooked food would probably con-
tain a rather larger proportion of dry or solid substance, though
certainly not sufficiently so to make up in quality, for the de-
ficient quantity of increase in the single experiment now under
consideration. Supposing the result to be^ in practice, generally
in favour of cooking in anything like the degree shown in these
few experiments, the process would doubtless be advantageous
at any rate to the, producer ^ if conducted sufficiently economically ;
and where, as at Wobum, the cooking arrangements are adapted
for a large quantity of stock, the cost per head need be but very
trilling.

Comparison of the Results obtained at fFbhum, with those of other

Experimenters.

In Table XI., which follows, the average results of all the
experiments at Woburn, including 44 oxen, fattening over
periods varying from. 5 to nearly 9 weeks, are compared with
those of the published experiments of Colonel McDouall,* and
Mr. Templeton,! on the same points, so far as we have been able
to estimate them without direct analyses of the foods they em-
ployed : — .

Table XI.

Nnmber

of
AnlmalB.

Average
duration

of
Experi-
ment

Dry Substance of Food oonsomed.

Increase

Experimenters.

Per Head
per Week.

Per 100 lbs.
Live-
weight

To produce
lib.
increaae
in Live-
weight.

per 100 lbs.

Live.

weight

per Week.

Duke of Bedford
Colonel McDouall ..
*Blr. Templeton . .

44
56
12

days.
53
105
132

lbs.
]69i
132.^
126

lbs.
11«6
12*8
ll'l

lbs.
13-1
13-8

9-3

lbs.
0-89
0-92
1*19

Average ..

(112)

146^ 1 12*1

13-0

0*94

The average result at Wobum was, that 11'6 lbs. of the dry
substance of the mixed foods were consumed per 100 lbs. live-
weight per week, and 13*1 lbs. were required to produce 1 lb.
increase in live-weight. Thus, oxen fed under cover, and with
a liberal proportion of cake or com in their food, consumed per
week, dry substance equal to nearly one-eighth of their weight,
and yielded increase equal to less than 1 per cent of their weight
If, however, we reckon the rate of consumption over the whole
3 months of Experiments 1 and 2, to have been the same as
during the 2 months when the foods were actually weighed, and

* ' Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,' vol. xiii. pp. 113-128.
t Ibid., vol. xvi. pp. 163-9.

16 On the Fattening of Oxen,

take the increase at the rate of the 3 months, the average result
at Wohum would then be, that only 11*5 instead of 13*1 lbs. of
dry substance of food were required to produce 1 lb. increase in
live-weight. Or, if we altogether exclude from the calculation
Experiment 1, in which the increase for food consumed was
certainly very low, the average amount required would be
11*6 lbs. In either case the increase would then be almost
exactly 1 per cent, per week, on the weight of the animals.

In the experiments of Colonel McDouall, some of the oxen
were fed in boxes, some in stalls, and some in open sheds. The
food generally consisted of cake or com in somewhere about the
same proportion to the weights of the animals as in the Wobum
experiments ; straw-chaff in considerably less proportion than
clover-hay chaff was given at Woburn ; and roots in larger pro-
portion. Upon the whole, the dry substance of the mixed food
would be of rather higher quality in the Wobum experiments.
Consistently with this. Colonel McDouall's oxen required rather
more, both in relation to a given weight of animal within a given
time, and to produce a given amount of increase ; but they yielded
slightly more increase in relation to their weight. The compa-
rison would of course be still more in favour of the results at
Woburn than the Table shows, if the corrections above supposed
be adopted.

In Mr. Templeton's experiments the animals were also fed
under cover. The food consisted of hay, straw, and roots, with-
out any cake or com. Taking the data as they are given,
our calculations show that, with this comparatively inferior food-
mixture, there was less dry substance required, both in relation
to a given weight of animal within a given time, and to produce
a given amount of increase, than in either of the other cases of
much higher feeding. In fact, we are inclined to think that
there must be an error somewhere, in the records of Mr. Temple-
ton's experiments.

Upon the whole, we think the general averages given in the
bottom line of the Table, may be taken as very fairly representing
what should be the result of fattening oxen, liberally, and under
cover. We assume that, in round numbers, they will' consume
12 to 13 lbs. dry substance of their mixed food per week, for
every 100 lbs. of live-weight ; and that, for this 12 to 13 lbs.
they will yield 1 lb. of increase in live-weight — ^that is, incrtase
equal to 1 per cent per week, or nearly, on their weight.

Comparison between Oxen^ Sheep^ and Pigs.

In the next Table (XII.) the above general average KfollB
obtained with fattening oxen, are compared with those of our
numerous experiments with fattening sheep and pigs : —

On the Fatteninff of Oxen.

Table XII.

Number

of
F^pert-
menU.

Number

of
Animals.

Average
duration

of
Experi-
ment

dajB

87
143

Diy Substance of Food oonaomed.

'Increase

PacHead
per Week.

Per 100 lbs.

Live-

weieh^

per Week.

To produce

lib.

Increase

In Live-

weight

per 100 lbs.
Live-
welgbt

per Week.

Oxen ..
Sheep
Pigs .. ..

27
19
33

112
307
104

Iba.
146^
20^
48

lbs.
12-1
15-9
27'0

lbs.
13-0
9*2
4-8

lbs.
0«94
1-72
5*62

Before considering the results recorded in this comprehensive
Summary Table, the reader should call to mind the distinctions
between the different animals, in point of structure, and the cha-
i*acter of their food.

We have shown in the last number of this Journal that, in
proportion to the weight of the body, oxen have considerably
more of stomach and contents than sheep, and sheep considerably
more than pigs. On the other hand, pigs have a considerably
larger proportion of intestines and contents than sheep, and sheep
more than oxen. But, of stomachs and intestines and their respec-
tive contents, taken together, oxen have a larger proportion than
sheep, and sheep a larger proportion than pigs.

Again, the dry substance of the mixed food of oxen contains
a larger proportion of woody-fibre than that of sheep, and that of
sheep considerably more than that of pigs.

The results recorded in the above Table are quite in conformity
with the facts here stated, regarding the comparative structure
of the different animals, and the comparative character of their
respective foods.

Thus, oxen, with the most bulky, and, weight for weight, least
nutritious food, have the largest proportion of stomach, and the
least of intestinal surface for the absorption of nutritious matter ;
they give also the least proportion of increase for a given amount
of dry substance of food. Sheep come next in order to oxen in
these respects. The dry substaince of the food of the pig, is
in much the largest proportion digestible, and available for assi-
milation and respiration ; he has much the largest proportion
of intestinal surface for the absorption of nutritious matter;
and he yields much the most increase for a given amount of
dry substance of food. Calculation further shows that, oxen
expend in respiration the most, sheep considerably less, and pigs
much the least, of the dry substance of food in proportion to a
given amount of fattening increase yielded.

The general result, stated in figures, is that, 100 lbs. live-weight
of the kittening ox should yield about 1 lb. of increase per week,
consuming 12 to 13 lbs. dry substance of food to produce it.

On the Fattening of Oxen.

100 lbs. live-weight of fattening sheep should yield about 1} lb.
of increase per week, consuming 15 to 16 lbs. dry substance, of
food. Lastly, 100 lbs. live-weight of the fattening pig should
yield 5 to 6 lbs. of increase per week, consuming 26 to 28 lbs.
dry substance of food to produce it

To sum up the comparison between fattening oxen, sheep,
and pig^, when liberally fed under cover, the facts may be briefly
enumerated as follows : —

1. In proportion to a given live-weight within a given time,
sheep will consume about 1^, and pigs about 2|-, times as much
dry substance of their food as oxen.

2. Oxen should yield per week about 1, sheep about 1|, and
pigs 5 to 6 per cent of their weight, of increase.

3. To produce 1 lb. of increase, oxen will require 12 to 13 lbs.,
sheep about 9 lbs., and pigs from 4 to 5 lbs. of the dry substance
of their respective foods.

Produce of Manure in tfie Wohum Experiments.

On the present occasion we shall only call attention to the
amounts of fresh and dry dung obtained for given amounts of
food and litter employed ; leaving the question of the chemical
composition of the manure in relation to that of the food and
litter, for separate consideration at a future opportunity.

In Table VII. (p. 9) the total amounts, and in Table VIII.
(p. 10) the average amount, per head per week, of food, litter, and
dung (both fresh and dry), are given separately for each of the six
experiments. In Table XIII. which follows, the amounts per
head per week, and per 100 lbs. live-weight per week, and also
the amounts of food and litter yielding 1 ton of fresh dung, t^Jdng
the average of the six experiments, are given : —

Table XIII.

Food, Lliter, and Dong.

Food and Titter

Per Head per Week.

Pfer 100 lbs. Live-
weight per Week.

Frcah. ! Dry.

toprodnoe
1 Tod ft«ay>iiii«.

Frwh.
lb..'

uof

377

Dry.

Ftesh. Dry.

Cake or com
Clover-hay chaff
Swedish turnips ..

lbs.
37f
914
40

lbs.
2-92
7-59
25-81

36-32
9*10

! lb..

; 2 55
6-28
2-74

11-57
7-30

lbs.
168
431
1469

Iba.
147
356
156

Total food
litter

531
133

169i
106}

2068
518

659
416

Total fooQ and litter..
Dong

664
575

276
156

45*42
39-33

18-87
10-67

2586
(2240)

1075

(608)

Thus, taking the
nn average period of

average of six experiments, extending over
nearly eight weeks, and including 44 animals

0/1 the Fattening of Oxen,

of a mean weight of about 1470 lbs., there were consumed per
head per week, about 43J lbs. of cake or com, 110 J lbs. clover-
hay chaff, and 377 lbs. roots ; in all 531 lbs. of food. There
were used besides, 133 lbs. of litter. The total food and litter
was therefore 664 lbs. ; and the amount of fresh dung produced
was 575 lbs. The dry substance of the dung was 156 lbs., that
of the litter being only 106i lbs. ; there was a gain therefore of
about 50 lbs., or nearly one half, upon that of the litter used.
The dry substance of the food and litter together was, however,
276 lbs., yielding in dung 156 lbs., or only 56J per cent, of die
total. 43J per cent, of the dry substance of the food and litter were,
therefore, either stored up as increase, expended by the animal
in respiration, &c., or lost by the decomposition of the manure.

To produce one ton of fresh box dung, there were consumed
168 lbs. cake or corn, 431 lbs. clover-hay chafi^ and 1469 lbs.
swedes ; in all 2068 lbs. of food, besides 518 lbs. litter, making a
total of 2586 lbs. food and litter.' This contained 1075 lbs. of
dry substance, and the ton of dung 608 lbs.

The litter contributes considerably the largest proportion of the
dry or solid substance of the manure heap. In fact, it is the
amount of litter, wetted to a certain condition of moisture with
the liquid and solid excrements of animals alone if the manure
be made under cover, or with these excrements and water if
made in open yards, that chiefly regulates the bulk and weight of
the heap. Hence, practical men have generally taken the amount
of litter at command as the basis of their estimates of the amount
of manure produced on a farm. The following Table (XIV.)
shows the amounts of dung (fresh and dry) obtained for 100
parts fresh litter used, in each of the six experiments at Wobum.

Table XIV.

EjqHiriments.

Number Number
of of Anl-
Days. mals.

DescrlpUon of Food.

Average

60
60
57
57
36
35

11
12
5
5
6
5

rCnished oilcake; clover-hay chaff,!

\ and swedes j

(Cooked linseed-compound ; clover-hay \
\ chaff, and swedes
/Cooked oilcake-compound ; clover-
redes

\ hay chaff, and swedes j

(Cooked linseed-compound; clover-hay^

\ chaff, and swedes /

(Cooked linseed-compound; clover-hay "I
I chaff, and swedes j

{Cooked oilcake-compound ; clover-1
hay chaff, and swedes /

I00lbt.fr«ab
Litter produced.

Fresh
Dung.

lbs.
419

Dry
Dung.

lbs.
117

53 : (44)

398

101

*441

118

*450

120

528

143

♦421

129

434 I 118

* Tn Experiments 3, 4, and 6, the weight of " fthsotbent ** tiMd Nft t«(3bSQfi& «a v> tdl^<3kv>&nx«x.

20 On the Fatteniiig of Oxen.

In the article on manure in Morton's ^ Cyclopeedia of Agricul-
ture' it is stated that Mr. J. C. Morton f6und oxen feeding in
boxes, to require 20 lbs. of straw per head per day, as litter.
Mr. Evershed, in his prize essay on ' The proper office of Straw
on a Farm' (R. A. S. Journal, vol. xxi. part 1), states that he
finds an ox will make 8 tons of fresh dung in six months, using
32 cWts. of litter. This is equal to about 19^ lbs. of straw per
head per day ; and according to this estimate each ton of litta
gives 5 tons of fresh dung.

The average result of the 6 experiments at Wobum gives 133
lbs. litter per head per week, or 19 lbs. per day ; and the amount
of fresh dung corresponding to this was 575 lbs. per week, or
82^ lbs. p(*r day. Or, as the Table shows, 100 lbs. of litter gave
on the average 434 lbs. fresh dung ; that is, 1 part litter gave
4i- parts dung.

But it is generally estimated that more than twice as much
litter must be employed per h^ad, when animals are fed in open
yards. Assuming this to be the case, and supposing, for the sake
of illustration, the weight of fresh dung to bear the same pro-
portion to that of the litter in both cases, it is obvious that a given
amount of litter used in open yards, will be saturated with only
about half as much of the excrements of animals as it would be
in boxes, the remainder of the moisture being made up by rain.

At any rate, it is clear, that the amount of the constituents
derived from animal excrements that will be carted to the field in
each ton of dung, will be extremely variable according to the
mode of its manufacture. In fact, a given amount of litter may be
made the vehicle of conveying to die field, at an equal cost of
cartage, about twice as much of the valuable constituents of
animal excrements in the one case as in the other.

From the facts given above it may be concluded, as a general
average estimate, diat when full-grown oxen are fed in boxes the?
will require about 20 lbs. of straw per head per day, as litter ; and
that they will produce fresh dung equal to about 4 times the
weight of the litter used.

London : Frlnied by W . Cu^'iru wMitevt^, SUmford Street, Mid ChtrisK Omm.

EXPERIMENTS

ON THE QUESTION

WHETHER THE USE OF CONDIMENTS

INCEEASES THE ASSIMILATION OF FOOD

BY FATTENING ANIMALS,

ADDS TO THE PROFITS OF THE FEEDER.

J. B. LAWES, F.RS., F.C.S.,

R0THAM8TED, HBBT8.

Reprinted from tJie
Edihbuboh Vbtbbinabt Bevusw AMD Annals of Compabatiye Patuology,

July, 1862.

EDINBURGH :
PRINTED BY ANDREW JACK, 18, CLYDE STREET.

1862.

LONDON :

REPRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE & CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE-

1893.

EXPERIMENTS, &c.

SiNCB the introduction, some twenty years ago, of the Waterloo
Gsesarian cow-cabbage, of which it was said that two or three plants
would be sufficient to keep u, flock of sheep through a whole winter,
and that the stems were so large as to be suitable for the rafters of
buildings, nothing has been offered to the agricultural public of
which the value is so disproportionate to the cost as the so-called
condimental foods. As it was evident that one year's trial would
settle the merits of the cabbage, it was necessary to exercise consi-
derable ingenuity in its introduction. It was said that only a few of
the seeds were in existence, which might be purchased of a tailor
in St. James's Street, in packets of 21, for the small sum of one
guinea. Of course, numbers of persons were anxious to secure one
of the few packets, which, it is needless to remark, were always
found to be equal to the demand. The result in the following
summer was a general laugh at the expense of the purchasers.

It is surely almost as easy to determine whether the employment
of an ounce or two daily of a condiment would cause a pig to fatten
" in half the usual time," as whether a cabbage would grow as big
as a bam. Unfortunately, however, the question of the amount of
food required to yield a given amount of increase in live weight has
not received that attention from practical agriculturists generally,
which, from their interest in the matter, it well merits at their hands.
If feeders were more accustomed to the use of scales and weights,
and had arrived by experience at definite estimates of the amount of
increase they should obtain from given amounts of food, the real
value of the so-called condimental foods would have been settled in
six months after their introduction. It is true that science has not
advanced sufficiently far accurately to establish the feeding eo^v<(^<^xN.^
of each aeparate constituent of foods. &^\!i\t ^»il<^T^ \^ ^\» <^\s£cs!i»si^

4 EXPERIMENTS ON THE USE OF

sufficient knowledge of the relation of the amount of increase ob-
tained to that of certain constituents of food consumed, upon which
to found pretty trustworthy conclusions as to the actual and relatiTe
value of different food-stuffs.

So much, indeed, is known on this subject, that, in testing the
value of Thorley's condimental food in the experiments with sheep,
the results of which are given in this paper, it was hardly necessan
to conduct parallel experiments without the food, as has been done,
f Vom data already published (in the Journal of the Boyal Agricul-
tural Society of England, in the Reports of the British Association
for the Advancement of Science, and in the Philosophical Transac-
tions of the Boyal Society of London), it might safely have been
assumed that cake, clover-chaff, and roots, given in the proportions
adopted in the experiments without the condiment, would yield one
part of increase in Uve-weight for about 9^ or 10 parts of the dn
substance of the mixed foods ; and taking this as the basis, it would
be very easy to come to a conclusion as to the benefit, or otherwise,
arising from substituting a part of the cake for an equal weight of
the condiment. But, as the condiment cost, weight for weight, about
8^ times as much as the linseed-cake, and about 5 times as much
as the cotton-cake employed, it is obvious that, to be profitable, a
less amount of the dry substance of the mixed foods should be re-
quired to yield a given amount of increase in live- weight, when a
certain quantity of the cake is substituted by so much condiment.

But, even supposing that by the substitution of condiment for oQ-
cake the amoimt of increase obtained were greater in proportion to
the increased cost, it would still be necessary to consider the com-
parative money value of the manure obtained from the two descrip-
tions of food. The importance of taking this element of profit or kw
into consideration may be judged from the fisMt, that, whereas the
value of the manure obtained on feeding a ton of linseed-cake amoontB
to about two-fifths the cost of the food, and that from a ton of ootton-
cake to three- fourths of the cost of the cake or more, the manon
from a ton of the condiment costing L.40, cannot be estimated as
worth more than (if as much as) one-twentieth of the oost of the
food. In farther illustration it may be mentioned, that the manure
obtained from feeding a ton of oil-cake is worth at least three timea
as much as that from a ton of barley-meal. Hence, even if the two,
weight for weight, oost the same, and yielded the same amoont of
increase, the oil -cake wovili V)q \>y Ux Vti<^ cXi'^^i^x V»cA«

CONDIMENTAL CATTLE FOOD. 5

Applying the same mode of estimate to the condimental food, it is
obvious that, even supposing a ton of the food costing L.40 gave as
much increase of meat as 8^ ton0 of linseed-cake costing the same
amount, the farmer who used the ton of condiment instead of the
8^ ions of cake would be a very great loser, owing to the much less
value of the manure obtained from the condiment, than of that
obtained from the cake. In fact, the manure yielded by the 3^ tons
of linseed-cake would be worth eight or ten times as much as that
firom the ton of condiment ; or that from a ton of linseed- cake would
be worth fully 2^ times as much as that from a ton of condiment
costing 8^ times as much. It is obvious, therefore, that the use of a
ton of condiment costing L.40, instead of a ton of linseed cake costing
L.ll, would not be profitable unless the former gave 8^ times as
much increase as the latter, and at the same time manure worth eight
or ten times as much as that which it really does produce.

Let us now see what are the results of some direct experiments on
the use of condiment in the feeding of sheep, and endeavour to esti-
mate the profit or loss of the proceeding, having regard to the value
of the manure, as well as to that of the increase, as above indicated.

Twenty sheep were selected from a large number, and carefully
divided into four lots of five each, in such a manner that the
lots resembled one another as closely as possible, in regard both to
weight and the character of the animals. The four lots were placed
side by side on rafters under cover, and fed, respectively, as follows —
Pen 1, i lb. linseed-cake, 1 lb. clover-hay chaff, per head, per day,
and Swedish turnips ad libitum. Pen 2, the same as pen 1, excepting
that one-fourth of the linseed cake was substituted by an equal weight
of Thorley's condimental food.* Pen 8, h lb. cotton cake, 1 lb. clover-
hay chaff, per head, per day, and Swedish turnips ad libitum. Pen
4, the same as pen 8, excepting that one-fourth of the cotton cake
was substituted by an equal weight of Thorley's condimental food.*

The experiment was commenced on November 1, 1861, and con-
tinued for twenty-eight weeks, when the animals were killed and the
weight of their carcasses and other parts determined. The results
are given in the following Tables, I., II., III., and IV., as under : —

• The condiment was mixed with the other foods in the manner described in
Mr Thorley^s printed directions.

6 EXPERIMENTS ON THE USE OK

TABLE I.
Shnwinf^ the Weights or eacb Sheep ; its giin duriDf; e«cb period of 4 wwb,
and during the tol*l period of 28 weeks ; fromNoTember 1, 1801, to Maf 16,
160:! i and itA per cent, of carcass in the futed live-weight.

IVCBiUBt IS WnOHT

atOum-

'ine

CtnL

Not. I,

«'«k\

w«k.

J^L.

■mtUt

n-Hki

™i.

dailon.

Fw'xl

Jl.

*ir

"e^

»|).L

a 1 6

147 , 57}

1)1

l->

10 ■ 6

1 '

146 66

162 1 6H

'■* i

5»

146 60]

Total

IJ
50

170 I 68J

460 ' 4-1

4li

38 ' 18 "i 310

770 1

ATenigB..| 02 ' 8^ Oi 12 1 lOJ

10 1 Ik' 3j! 63

154 1 6?J

Pes 1 1.— 5 Sleep, fed on Unseed cake, Thorley'i Food, Clover

W Chaff, wrfl

Swedish turnipe:-

" i. '

H 1 . 62

161 604

7 Oi 60

164 GOi'

8 0 66

16S 67*

1'^

2 6 67

146 60

4,1 66

151 «H\

Total

465

33 ' 61

5i fit

20 14 1 200

755 1

It':

6i lOil lOi' lOj

Of 2i| 58

_iDi 1 m

12 1 6 I 11 1 7 1 10 8

2 : 56 1 148

61^

13 6 It 10 4 7

0 . 50 , 14«

fi»

100

12 8 1 fl 8 6 7

63 163

13 8 i 11 ■ 8 1 12 6

58 146

6.
Total

03
470

10 1 10 j 14 8 12 8

60 1 37 ! C3 ' 41 1 44 36

0
fl

62 164

279 1 749

Avemge..

12 1 7*1 lOll 8^1 831 7i' li

66} 1 160

Phi IV.-fi Sheep, fed ou Cotton cake, Tborley's Food, Ciover-hay cluf^ and

Swudish turnips: —

9a i 16 ■ 6 1 10 1 11 10 1 7 , 1

IBS

t) 5 1 9 8 0 1 3 0

136

«W

12 1 U 1 fl ! 0 1 5 1 2

137

Ift 8 8 S 1 8 1 5 2

163

104

16 3 W 1 10

[" '

174

-^J

476
06*

fl6 23 \ M \ 46

N'*^

CONDIMENTAL CATTLE FOOD.

TABLE II.

Showing the final Live-Weigbts, the CarcasB-Weights, and the Weights of the

loose Fat and Wool, &c.

Not.

Final
Lirc-WeighU.

TJn-
fasted.

Fasted.

Loss

Failing.

CaroasB- Weights.

As soon

as
killed.

S4toa0

hours after

kilUng.

Loss

Cooling.

Loose Fat.

Intes*

tinaland

Heart

Fat

Canl
fat.

WodL

Pbit I. — 6 Sheep, fed on Linseed cake, Clover-hay chaff, and Swedish turnips :-^

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

lbs.

147
146
162
146
170

Total.... 770
Average I 154

IIm. OS.

1S9 0
139 14
162 10
141 4
168 0

730 12
146 2

lbs. OS.

8 0

6 2

9 6
3 12

12 0

39 4

7 14

lbs. OS.

81 6
79 12
95 11
85 10

94 6

436 11
87 6

lbs. oz.

79 8

78 4

94 4

84 4

92 6

428 10
86 12

Ibfl. OS.

1 13

1 8

1 7

1 6

1 16

8 1

1 9

lbs. oz.

2 11

3 6
3 8

3 14

4 4

|17 II
! 3 9

lbs. OS.
6 16
6 12
4 13
6 16
6 11

30 2
6 0

lbs. OS.

6 0
6 14

6 10

7 4
9 0

32 13
6 9

Pek II.— 6 Sheep, fed on Linseed cake, Thorley's Food, Clover-hay chaff, and

Swedish turnips : —

161

143 14

7 2

89 6

164

146 12

8 4

87 16

153

144 10

8 6

84 14

146

137 12

8 4

84 6

151
766

142 10

8 6

87 10

Total....

714 10

40 6

434 1

Average

161

142 16

8 1

80 13

87 8
86 8
83 4
82 12
86 0

426 0

86 3

1 13
1 7
1 10
1 9
1 10

8 1
1 10

2 10
2 15

2
2
2

13
12
14

14 0
2 13

6 8
6 7
6 13
4 12
6 10

.HI 2
6 4

14
12

6 10

6 12

7 10

33 10

! 6 12

Pbit III. — 6 Sheep, fed on Cotton cake, Clover-hay chaff, and Swedish turnips: —

1.
2.
3.
4.
6.

148
149
153
145
154

137 2
139 4
144 12
133 14
143 4

Total....* 749
Average 149}

698 4
139 10

10 14
9 12
8 4

11 2
10 12

50 12
10 2

85 12
33 9
85 14
80 16
85 6

84 4

82 0

84 8

79 4

84 0

21 8 414 0
84 5 ! 82 13

1 8
1 9
1 6
1 11
1 6

7 8
1 8

3 6

2 6

3 3

2 13

3 7

15 3
3 1

6 0

8 3
6 11 i
5 8
8 11

35 1
7 0

6 2

5 4

6 12
6 14
6 4

31 4
6 4

Pbh IV.— 5 Sheep, fed on Cotton cake, Thorley's Food, Clover-hay chaff, and

Swedish turnips : —

2.
3.
4.
6.

Total...
Avenge!

163
136
137
152
174

144
128
129
142

0
0
0
2

162 14

752 706 6
ISOjl HI 4 I

9 0

7 10

8 0

9 14
11 2

45 10
9 2

89 3
80 13
78 13
85 10
99 3

87 12
79 4
77 8
84 4

1
I
1
1

97 12 ♦ 1

9
6
6

2 8
2 6

2 15

3 10
6 3

3 10
6 12
6 13
6 9

9 7

5
6
6
6

0
6
0
2

6 14

433 10 1426 ft \ T % m \^ ^ ^ V®^ ^

B6 12 B5 5

EXPERIMENTS ON THE USE OF

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iO 1-1 "* x- 1

CONDIMENTAL CATTLE FOOD.

10 EXPERIMENTS ON THE USE QF

In Table I., the weights of each sheep at the commencement and
conclusion of the experiment ; its gain during each period of fonr
weeks, and during the total period of twenty-eight weeks, from No-
vember 1, 1861, to May 16, 1862 ; and its proportion of carcass in
100 fasted live-weight.

In Table II., the final live-weights, the carcass-weights, and the
weights of loose fat and wool, &c.

In Table III., the amounts of food consumed by each lot of 5
sheep, during each period of four weeks, and during the total period
of experiment, 28 weeks.

In Table IV., the total quantity of food consumed by each lot of
sheep in 28 weeks ; the average amount consumed per head per week ;
the average amount consumed per 100 lbs. live- weight per week;
and the average amount required to produce 100 lbs. increase in
live-weight.

An examination of the column in Table I. which gives the in-
crease in live-weight during the total period of 28 weeks, shows that
the 6 sheep in pen 1, without Thorley*s Food, gave 20 lbs. more gross
increase than the 5 in pen 2 with it ; and again, the 5 sheep in pen
8, without Thorley's food, gave 8 lbs. more gross increase than the 5
in pen 4 with it. On the other hand, in each case, the lot with Thor-
ley*s Food gave a somewhat higher per-centage of carcass in Casted
live-weight than the corresponding lot without it. But again, Table
II. shows that the sheep in pen 1, without the condiment gave rather
more loose fat than those in pen 2 with it ; and those in pen 8, with-
out the condiment, only about an ounce per head less than those in
pen 4 with it.

So far, then, as the mere amount of increase obtained within a
given time is concerned, the results without, and with Thorley*8
Food are very nearly identical. But the important question arises,
what is the relation of the increase obtained to the amounts of food
consiuned to produce it in the several case« ?

The last column of Table IV. shows that, in' both of the oomptia-
tive experiments, more food was consumed to produce a given amount
of increase with Thorley*s Food than without it. Thus, in pen %
in wliich, as compared with pen 1, one-fourth of the linseed-cake was
replaced by an equal weight of the condiment, it required 10 lbs. 15
oz. more of the mixture of linseed-cake and condiment tlian of
Imseed-cake alone, 21 Yb». 1^ ox. tcvot^ ^qn^t-^^^ and 265 Iba. hum
Swedes, to produce 100 \\>a. \Tve\e»»^^ m Xvs^-^^^gB^* knil

CONDIMENTAL CATTLE FOOD. 11

eomparing pen 4, in which a mixture of 8 parts cotton-cake and
1 part Thorley's Food was tried against an equal weight of cotton-
cake in pen 8, the result is, that it required 2 lbs. 4 oz. more of
the mixture of cake and condiment, 8 lbs. 18 oz. more clover-hay chaff,
and 54 lbs. more turnips, to produce 100 lbs. increase in live-weighty
than it did of cake, bay, and turnips, in pen 8, without condiment.

The result is, then, that in both cases it required more, and in one
case considerably more, food to yield a given amount of increase in
live-weight with the condimental food than without it. But as the
sheep with the condiment gave rather a higher proportion of carcass-
weight, let it, for the sake of argument, be assumed that a given
weight of condiment yielded just about the same increase of meat aa
an equal weight of cake. Even granting that there was as good a
result in point of increase for food consumed with the condiment as
without it (which in one case, at least, there certainly was not), the
important fact must still be admitted, that there was at any rate no
more increase obtained by the use of a food costing in the one case 8^
times, and in the other 5 times, as much as that which it substituted.

It may here be mentioned in passing, that in experiments made
with pigs, the particulars of which were published some months ago,
the results, so far as increase for food is concerned, were even less favour-
able to the use of condiment than those above described relating to sheep.

It should further be particularly observed, that in the experiments
with both pigs and sheep without condimental food, the results of
which are taken as the standards by which to compare those obtained
with the condiment, the amounts of increase yielded for a given
amount of dry substance of food consumed were fully as much as
could be expected from the foods employed in the respective cases,
and more than equal to the average obtained with such foods.

In the above remarks, on the results obtained in the experiments
with sheep, attention has been confined to the amounts of food re-
quired to produce a given amount of increase without and with
the condimental food, and it has been found that no more meat
was obtained when a given quantity of cake was substituted by con-
diment, costing in one case 8^ times and in the other 5 times as
much as the cake which it replaced. But to get at the true value to
the feeder of the condimental food, it will be necessary to consider the
comparative value of the manure in the respective cases.

For the sake of simplicity, we will ag^n oA^vmi^ \?cl^ %2ssl^>:£E2&5!. ^
jBcreaae to be the same when a given wnoxavV cA Xvosaftfc^ ^'t ^\ ^^ri^^sscw

EXPERIMENTS ON THE USE OF

cake was substituted by an equal weight of condimental food, as
when the cake was used without it. Again, the amounts of hay and
Swedes consumed being much the same in the several experiments,
the value of the manure from these foods may be considered as equal
in all the cases. We have, then, only to compare the cost of cake
and value of the manure, in the cases where no condiment was used,
with the cost of cake and condiment, and the value of the manure,
when condiment was employed.

In the statement given below, the estimated value of the manure
is, in each case, deducted from the original cost of the food, the dif-
ference showing the proportion of that cost to be charged against the
increase ; and the difference between the amount chargeable to the
increase when Thorley*s food was not employed, and that so charge-
able when it was employed, shows the difiference in the cost of the
increase to the feeder. The values of the manure, from the two
descriptions of cake, are estimated upon very careful calculations
founded upon the average composition of such cakes. The value of
the manure yielded on the consumption of Thorley*s food, if founded
on the results of the direct analysis of the food actually employed,
would be less than that stated below ; but as some other condiments
which have been analyzed would yield a manure of higher value, and
wishing not to overstate the case, a somewhat higher estimate of value
than that which calculation from direct analysis gives has been taken.

The following are the results of the comparisons so made : —

Pen 2 cotnpared loith Pen 1.

l^ir (^^ ^^^' ^'^^^d cake, at L.ll per ton, less the^
J •] Talue of the manure, at L.4, l^s. per ton off

* I cake consumed J

307i lbs. linseed cake, less the value of the) r

p 1 manure ) *

jj Jl22J lbs. Thorley's food, at L.40 per ton, less]

the value of the manure, at L.2 per ton of r 2

the food consumed )

Extra cost with condiment .

L.1 8 0

1 1 Ot

1 7j

8 3 7

. L.1 14 7

Pen 4 compared unth Pen 3.

Pen f^^ ^^' ^^^^^° cake, at L.8 per ton, less the]

jrr - value of the manure, at L.6, lOs. per ton of r L.0 6 7

' I cake consumed )

267 i lbs. cotton cake, less the value of the) jq ^ ^t

Pen] manure )

IV. ' }22i Ihe. ThoTley*B food, less the value of the

( minure

Estta co«\. -wWV eoTv^vov^^tiX

2 17

2 6 «

. ViXX^VV

CONDIHENTAIi CATTLE FOOD. 18

Thus, taking into acoount the value of the manure, as well as the
amount of the increase of the animals, the result is, that when a given
weight of Thorley's food was substituted for an equal weight of
linseed eake, it cost L.l, 14s. 7d. more to obtain the same amount of
increase from 5 sheep, in 28 weeks, than with the linseed cake with-
out the condiment. Again, when the mixture of cotton cake and
Thorley's Food was given, the increase of the 5 sheep, in 28 weeks, cost
L.l, 19s. lid. more than when cotton cake, without condiment, was used.
The loss by the use of condiment was, therefore, 6s. lid. per head
where the condiment was given, instead of so much linseed cake ; and
nearly 8s. per head when it replaced an equal weight of cotton cake.

Those who are not accustomed to estimate the comparative value
of different foods with due regard to the value of the manure, as well
as that of the increase they yield, may perhaps prefer to have some-
thing more in the shape of an ordinary balance sheet by which to
guide their judgment. Such a balance sheet is, therefore, given below.

In explanation of the figures, it may be stated that the store sheep
were valued from the flock, at the prices ruling at the time, which
were then somewhat high. The wool, which was shorn just before
killing, is estimated according to pubhshed rates. The turnips are
not charged. In other respects, the actual prices are given, with the
exception, that the carcasses are reckoned as sold at one uniform
price of 4s. per stone of 8 lbs., which was in reality not the case. It
was desirable to close the experiment at the period of the regular
monthly weighing, and, for the sake of uniformity, to have all the
sheep killed at one time and sent to one market. It happened,
however, that that market was a very bad one ; and, owing to an
accident in transit, the carcasses did not arrive at Newgate market
until very late. The resuH was, that only some of the carcasses
fetched even the low price of 4s. ; the others, including all those
fed with Thorley's condimental food, selling at a still lower rate.
As, however, this was accidental, it would be unfair to show the
balance still more against the condiment by adopting the actual
prices of sale. The uniform price of 4s. per stone of 8 lbs. is there-
fore taken. That the lower average price obtained for the sheep fed
with Thorley's food did not depend upon any apparent inferiority of
quality, but on the heat of the weather, and the state of the market,
may be judged by the statement of the salesman, who writes of the
20 sheep as follows : — " Our opinion respecting the quality is^ the^
are all bo very good that wo can acarceVy ^y \?\iv3ti v?i\i^'^^\s^ ""^kjs^

EXPEBIlfENTS ON THB USE OF

if there is any preference it must be for No. 4. Had these sht^p
come into yesterday week's trade, they would have made fally Is. per
stone more, so great is the difiference." It is thought, however, belter
to take the highest price actually obtained, than the average maricet
price, which would, of course, show a much better profit on the feed-
ing in all the cases ; though it would scarcely affect the comparison.

Balance Sheet of bach Experiment.

Pen I. — 5 Sheep^fed on Linseed cake, Clover-hay chaff, and Swedish

turnips : —

6 store Sheep at 348. each .....
400 lbs. Lindeea cake, at L.ll : 0 : 0 per ton .
980 Ibo. Clover-hay, at 4:16:0 per ton .
Killing, at 6d. per head .....

51 St. 6 lbs. Mutton, . at 4s. Od. per st. of 8 lbs. L.10

17 lbs. II oz. Intestinal fat, at 28. dd. „
30 lbs. 2 oz. Caul fat, . at 38. 4d. „
32 lbs. 12 oz. Wool, . at Is. 6d. per lb.

5 Heads, &c., at Is. 2d. each .

6 Skins, • at O3. 8d. each .

L.8 10 0

2 8 U

2 I 0|

0 2 6

L.13 2 2i

Gain

Pen II. — 5 Sheep, fed on Linseed cake, Thorley^s food. Clover-hay

chaff, and Swedish turnips: —

6 store Sheep at 34s. each .
367| lbs. Linseed cake, at L.I 1 : 0: 0 per ton
122J Ibe. Thorley's food, at 2 : 0 : 0 per cwt.
980 lbs. Clover-hay, at 4 : 16 : 0 per ton
Killing, at 6d. per head

L.8 10 0

1 16 1

2 3 0
2 1 6}
0 2 6

51 St. 3 lbs. Mutton, . at 4s. Od. per st. of 8 lbs. L.IO 5 6

L.14 II 10}

14 lbs. 0 oz. Intestinal fat, at 2s. 3d.
31 lbs. 2 oz Caul fat, . at 38 4d. „
33 lbs 10 oz. Wool, . at Is. 6d. per lb.

6 Heads, &c., at Is 2d. each .

5 Skins, . at Os. 8d. each .

0
0
2
0
0

Loss

3 n\

12 11
10 5

5 10

3 4 /

14 2 Oi

L.0 11 10|

Fen III. — 5 Sheep, fed on Cotton cake. Clover-hay chaffs and Swedish

turnips : —

5 store Sheep at 348 each ....
490 lbs. Cotton cake, at L.8 : 0 : 0 per ton
980 Ibe. Clover-hay, at 4 : 15 : 0 per ton
Killing, at 6d. per head, ....

50 at. 0 Ibe. Mutton, • at 48. Od. per st. of 8 lbs. L.10
15 Ibe. 3 OS. Inte8tinalfat,at28. 3d. „ „ 0

ti6 Ibe. 1 oz. Caul fat, . at 38 4d. „ „ 0

81 Ibe. 4 OS. Wool, . at Is. 6d. per lb. . . 2

6 Heads, ^c, at Is. 2d. etch . . • .0

6 SkiDB, • at Os. 8d. eac\v . • . ^

•
•
•
•

L.8 10 0
1 15 0
3 1 6]
0 9 6

0 0 N

4 ^
4 7

6 10
5 10

a 4 J

L.12 9 (^
- 18 14 11

\*\ ^\<H,

CONDIMENTAL CATTLE FOOD. 15

Pbn IV. — 5 Sheepf fed on Cotton cake, Tliorley's food, Clover-hay

chaff, and Swedish turnips : —

5 store Sheep at 348. each •
867} Ibe. Cotton cake, at L.8 : 0:0 per ton
122} lbs. Thorley ■ food, at 2 : 0 : 0 per. cwt.
080 Iba. Cloyer-hay, at 4:15:0 per ton
Killbg, at 6d. per head.

51 8t 8 lbs. Mutton, at 4s. Od. per at. i

17 lbs. 10 oz. Intestinal fat, at 2ii. Sd. „
83 lbs. 8 oz. Caul fat, . at 3s. 4d. „
28 lbs. 6 oz. Wool, . at Is. 6d. per lb.

5 Heads, &c., at Is. 2d. each .

5 Skins, . at Os. 8d. each .

Loss

L.8 10

1 0

2 8

L..10 5 6 ,

2 1
0 2

L14 4

0 4 11}
0 18 10
.220}
. 0 5 10

. 13 16

0 ^ i.

« v o * /

L.0 8

The comparison here shown, in which the different value of the
manure without, and with the condimental food, is entirely left out
of the question, is, again, in both cases against the use of condiment.
Where the condiment replaced an equal weight of linseed cake, the
difference in fjavour of the cake alone is L.1, 12s. 6d., and where it
replaced a given amount of cotton cake, the difference in favour of the
cake alone is L.1, IBs. lld»

Adding to the ahove amounts the difference in the value of the
manure, the result is, of course, still more against the use of condi-
ment. Thus, taking together the difference of result on the feeding
experiment as shown in the Balance Sheet, and the difference in the
value of the manure, the results stand as follows : —

Comparison between Pen II, tvith Linseed cake and Condiment, and
Pen I. with Linseed cake withmit Condiment :

Difference against Pen II. on the feeding, . . . L.1 12 6
Difference against Pen U. on value of manure, . . 0 2 10

Total difference against condiment, • • L.1 15 4

Comparison between Pen IV. with Cotton cake and Condiment, and
Pen III. with Cotton cake without Cofidiment : —

Difference against Pen IV. on the feeding, . . . L.1 18 II
Difference against Pen IV. on value of manure, . . 0 4 11

Total difference against condiment, * • li\ ^A ^s^

EXPEBIMENTS ON CONDIMENTAL CATTLE FOOD.

It will be observed how very closely these results, including both
the debtor and creditor accoant and the estimate of the valae of the
manure, agree with those obtained by a totally different mode of
calculation, to which feeders are less accustomed. Thus, the loss on
5 sheep in 28 weeks by using condimental food, instead of so mach
linseed cake, was reckoned at L.l, 14s. 7d. according to the first mode
of estimate, and it amounts to L.l, 15s. 4d. taking together the loss
shown on the balance sheet and that on the manure. Again, the loss
on the substitution of condiment for an equal weight of cotton cake
was L.l, 19s. lid. on the 5 sheep, reckoned according to the first
mode of estimate, and L.l, 18s. lOd. according to the second.

The results previously published of experiments with pigs, taken
together with those now recorded in regard to sheep, seem sufficiently
conclusive against the assumption that the use of the so-called condi-
ments increases the assimilation of food, by fattening animals in a
state of health. They are equally conclusive on the subject of the
profit or loss to the feeder from the use of such substances.

Whether or not the so-called condiments may prove advantageons
in the cases of old, over-worked, or otherwise debilitated horses,
or to fattening animals of poor constitution, or of weakly digestive
power, is quite another question. In some such cases they will
doubtless happen to be appropriate ; but whether the beneficial result
will be attained at a greater or less cost by having recourse to medi-
cines in the ordinary way, or to the use of the so-called condiments,
must be left to others to determine.

RKritlNTEI) BY

SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT

EXPERIMENTS

PHE FEEDING OF SHEEP-

. B. IjAWE3, F.R.S., F.C.S., & Dr. J. H. GILBERT, F.R.S., F.C.S.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,

AND GHAKING CROSS.

1862.

FROM THB
JOURNAL OF THB ROTAL AaRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLANIX

VOL. XXIII.

EXPERIMENTS

ON TUB

FEEDING OF SHEEP.

In the last volume of the Society's Journal we stated our intention
to enter, on an early occasion, upon the consideration of the com-
position of the manure of fattening animals, in relation to that
of the food they consumed. For many years past we have been
accumulating experimental evidence on this very important and
difficult subject of inquiry ; and it was with a view to an exten-
sion of our results, prior to publication, that the experiments which
constitute the subject of the present short report were arranged.
Their chief object was, besides providing additional information
as to the proportion of the nitrogen of thft food which is reclaimed
in the manure, to acquire direct experimental evidence on the
questions whether or not or in what proportions cellulose or
woody fibre, which enters so largely into the composition of the
food, especially of oxen and sheep, is digested, and contributes to
meet the respiratory requirements of the body, or to the forma-
tion of fat ? Or whether, on the other hand, it serves little other
purpose than that of supplying bulk, and dilution, so to speak,
of the other constituents of the food — thus aiding their digestion
and assimilation, and then passing off, itself undigested and un-
changed?

It is obviously necessary for the elucidation of the points in-
volved in these questions to determine, as far as chemistry
enables us to do so, not only the amount of cellulose consumed
in the food, but also the quantity voided in the excrements.
Hence, although a large portion of the analyses have already
been made, the consideration of them will be reserved until we
enter upon the general subject of the composition of the manure.
In order, however, to relieve from extraneous matter as far as
possible the subsequent report on the composition of the excre-
ments of fattening animals, which will of itself involve the
record of a vast amount of detail, it is proposed to give, on the
mnesent occasion, the results of the experiments referred to so far

4 Experiments (ni the Feeding of Sheep.

only as they relate to the amount of food consumed and of incretir
yielded.

With a view to the special objects above stated it was neccsp
sary tocmploy foods in which the proportion of woody fibre, and
of the other non-nitrogenous constituents, would be pretty constant
and be comparatively easily determined. It was further desirable
that, in some cases at least, the animals should have a somewhat
excessive proporticm of woody fibre in their food ; that in othen
the proportion of the more easily digestible non-nitrogeDoos sab-
stances (starch, fatty matter, &c.), should be more liberal; and
that the amount and character of these other non-nitrogenoiu
€M>nstituents should vary in the different experiments. It was
hence thought undesirable, at any rate in the first ezperimenti
on the point, to employ roots or other succulent food, the com-
l^osition of which would not only be more subjecrt to change
during the course of the experiment, but would be more difficult
and uncertain of determination in a large bulk, even at any one
given time. Various so-called "dry foods" only, and water,
were therefore selected ; and although, in some cases, these werc!,
as such, of good quality, the result was, as might be expected,
tliat the rate of increase was comparatively small in the absence
of a certain proportion of the more natural succulent food.

A number of 3-year-old Hampshire Down wether sheep, in
very poor condition, had some time previously been purchased
for the purposes of experiment. From these, 20 were selected,
and divided into 4 lots of 5 each, in such manner that, as fiar as
possible, each sheep should have its representative in weight and
other (characters in each of the other pens. They were put up
on rafters, under cover, on November 30, 1860.

As the sta])lo of tlie food throughout the experiments was to be
nicadow-hay chaff, all 4 ])ens were supplied with this food alone,
and water (each ad lihituni)^ for a preliminary period of 8 weeks,
namely, up to January 25, 18G1. It was intended that from this
date the sheep in one pen bhould have hay-chaff alone ; in a
second, hay-chaf^ with a certain amount of straw-chaff to increase
the ])ro])ortion of woody fibre ; in the third, a limited quantity
of gn)und barley, with hay-chaff ad libitum ; and in the foartb,
besides hay-chaff ad libitum^ bean's containing nitrogen equal to
that in the barley of |)en 3, and the deficiency of starch in the
smaller quantity of beans com])ared with that in the barley, to be
made up by oil, in the proportion of 1 part of oil for 2^ parts of
stiirch, this being (in round numbers) theoretically the relation
of the two substances in respiratory and fat-forming capacity.

The object was to supply in one of the dietaries only so mocb
digostibh; inatt<T beyond the celluhise or woody-fibre as woqU
just keep the animals fn>m losing weight, in fact to provide them

Experimetits on the Feeding of SJieep, 5

with mere sustenance, not fattening food. It was found, how-
ever, that even this condition was not maintained when any straw-
chaff was mixed with the hay. Accordingly, after a few weeks'
trial, any admixture of straw was abandoned ; hay -chaff alone
was adopted as the standard or mere sustenance food, and the
following was the final arrangement of the experiments : —

Pen 1. Meadow-hay-chaff alone, ud libitum.

Pen 2. 1 lb. of ground beans per head per day ; meadow-hay-
chaff o^f libitum.

Pen 3. 1 lb. of ground barley per head per day ; meadow-hay-
chaff cLd libitum.

Pen 4. About 6^ ounces of ground beans, and about 3^ ounces
oi linseed oil, per head per day ; meadow-hay-chaff ad libitum.

All the sheep had, in addition, an unlimited supply of water
always within their reach, of which, after the first 4 weeks of the
experimental period, the quantity taken was determined.

The above quantities of beans and linseed oil given in Pen 4,
were those settled at die commencement by calculation, taking
an assumed average composition for barley and beans ; but the
amounts were after a time slightly varied, when analyses of the
foods actually employed were made, and then again when fresh
stocks were brought into use, and fresh analyses made accord-
ingly.

The experiments were continued as above described till Sc})-
tember 6, 1861, that is, for a period of 40 weeks from the time
the sheep were first put up, and of 32 weeks from the time they
commenced with the special foods. They were then killed, and
the weights of the carcass and other parts determined.

The results are recorded in a series of Tables, as follow — those
given in Tables I. and II. relating to both the " Preliminary "
and the " Experimental " periods, and those in Tables III. to
IX. inclusive, to the " Elxperimental " period only : —

Table I. The weights of each sheep, its gain (or loss) between
each weighing, and its total gain.

Table II. The quantities of food consumed (and water drank)
in each pen, between each' period of weighing, and during the
total experimental period.

Table III. The average amount of food consumed (and water
drank) per head per week^ between each weighing, and' over the
total experimental period.

Table IV. The average amount of food consumed (and water
drank) per 100 lbs. live weight per toeek, between each weighing,
and over the total experimental period.

Table V. The average amount of food consumed (and water
drasik) per 100 lbs. live weight per weeky during each of 19 con-
secutive weeks, with the mean temperature and . range of tem-

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep,

Table I. — Weight

Preliminary Period (1860-61).

WclghU

when

put up»

Nov. 30.

Gain (or T»8a) lbs.

In 4 Weeks In 4 WeekJ

to to I

IVc 28. Jan. 25. I

Total

8 Weeks.

Expoi

Weights,

Jan. 25,

1861.

In 4 Weeks

Feb. 22.

In 4 Weeks In 4 WcekJla 4 '

to
Mar. 22.

to j \
Apr. 19. j Ifaq

Pen 1.— Fft¥l

lb*.

lbs.

lb«.

lbs.

lU.

Ifaa.

lU.

lbs.

126

- 5

- 8

-13

113

119

122

- 2

12G

131

10 J

112

119

- 8

(

112

115

- 1

Total..

595

- 3

6<K)

- 1

ATerage

119

1-6

- 0-6

120

- 0-2

4-2

2-35

Pen 2.

-Food:*

— Beans i

in lio

119

- 6

122

- I

123

- 3

— :

122

- 2

- 1

- 3

119

- 6

(

112

- 4

- 2

110

- 1

118

- 5

- 1

- 6

112

- 5

c§

■

Total..

593

-12

-10

583

-21

28|

ATerage

118-6

- 2-4

0-4

« 2

116 6

- 4-2

5-2

5-7

Pen 3.— Food :*—llarlev in lii

112

- 3

«. o

- 5

107

H i

119

- 1

- 2

- 8

116

133

- 2

- 1

132

122

- 1

. 2

120

10}

110

- 2

114

Total..

596

- 9

- 7

589

28|

42} 1

ATerage

119*2

0-4

- 1-8

- 1-4

n7«8

2-6

5-7

8-45

Pen 4. — Foo<l :* — Deans aud Linseed (

119

- 5

- 3

116

■ «

124

- 1

128

(

126

129

m
t

122

130

100

- 2

- 1

Total..

591

602

33}

ATerage

118*2

0«2

2*2

120-4

2-8

6-S

6-7

* The aboT« dncriptton^ of fond apply ooly to tbe "Experimental IVriod;" during Cbe ■■]

8««claalbrtbt<

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

Unr, &C., of the Sheep.

MadOMi).

mbi.

UWecks
to

In 2 Weeks

June 28.

In 4 Weeks
^ to
July 26.

In 4 Weeks

to
Aug. 23.

In 2 Weeks

Sept 6.

Total
in

Average
per Head

32 Weeks. . per Week.

Final
weights,
Sept. 6.

Wool

(shorn

May 17).

Final

wei^ta

with wool

added.

ftdow-bay-chaff alone, ad libitum.

■• on.

Ibt.

Iba.

Ibo. ozs.

lbs. ozs.

lbs.

lbs. ozs.

i 8

- 9*

- 4}

- 6f

- 3i

6 8

0 3i

114

5 8

119 8

I 4

- 2i

U 4

0 7

131

5 4

136 4

t 11

- 3i

- I

30 7

0 15i

153f

7 11

161 7

( 4

- 21

14 12

0 7i

127J

6 4

133 12

1 6

- 3*

- Oi

18 6

0 9}

128

5 6

133 6

f I

-131

- 6

84 .5

• •

654i

30 1

684 5

h 6*6

- 2«65

- I

0 85

0'8

16 13-8

0 8}

i:i0'9

6 0«2

136 14

aitity ; Meadow-hay-chaff ad libitum.

1 10

- oj

22 14

0 111

1371

4 6

141 14

r 3

- 2*

- 01

17 11

0 8f

136

4 11

140 11

1 14

28 10

0 141

141

6 10

147 10

1 2

- Oi

- 81

31 10

0 15|

137

4 10

141 10

r 0

- 2

23 4

0 llf

129|

5 8

135 4

1 IS

141

124 1

• •

6811
13l1

25 13

707 I

S 12*2

0-35

2*9

1-9

24 13

0 12}

5 2'6

141 7

intity ; Meadow-hay-chaff ad libitum.

i 13

- 1

- 2

24 5

0 121

126

6 5

131 5

> 0

- 2

42 4

1 61

1621

5 12

158 4

r 4

- 11

34 4

1 11

ifiol

5 12

166 4

f 1

- u

32 13

1 01

1481

4 5

152 13

1 14

- 9

30 6

0 161

138

6 6

144 6

1 0

-12f

13f

261

- 2

164 0

• •

724J

28 8

753 0

r 9-6

- 2-55

2-75

5 3

- 0-4

32 12*8

1 01

144-9

5 11-2

150 10

lied quantity ; Meadow-hay-chaff ad libitum.

1 s

62 12

1 lOl

1631

5 4

168 12

r 6

34 6

1 11

156

6 6

162 6

K 0

-ii

30 12

0 161

154

5 12

159 12

r 14

- 3

- 01

23 6

0 llf

147

6 6

163 6

1 13

- 4

30 5

0 151

1231

5 13

129 5

1 9

- 41

201

171 9

• •

744

29 9

773 9

B 11-4

- 0-9

2-6

4-05

1-8

34 5

1 u

148-8

5 14-6

154 U

^ sbeep bad bMr-cbaff alone ; and in Pen 2 tbe limited food (1)^"'*) ^^ "o^ given until March 22. tliat is,
b experimental Period.

B 4

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep,

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••si II

16 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

pcrature of the feeding-house, at different times of the day for
each of those weeks.

Table VI. The amounts of food consumed (and water drank)
to produce 100 lbs, inaease in live-weighty between each weighing,
and over the total experimental period.

Table VII. The average amount of increase per liead per ircrf,
and per 100 lbs, live tceiglit per tceek^ between each weighing, and
over the total experimental period.

Table VIII. The original and final weights, the total increase,
the wool, and the weights and proportions in the fasted weight
of the carcasses, and of the inside loose fat

Table IX. is a summary of Tables I., II., III., IV., \ U
VII., and VIII.

The Summary Table (IX.) shows at one view the average re-
sults over the whole experimental period on each of the points to
which the other tables respectively relate ; and it is to it that we
would refer the reader for a record of the main facts of the
experiments ; though, in the few remarks we. shall have to make
upon them, we shall necessarily be guided by a careful conside-
ration of the detail as given in die other tables.

The general result of the experiments is, as might be expected,
that sheep thus fed upon dry food alone (with water) increase<l
very little compared with the average result obtained with a
good mixed diet of dry and succulent food.

Table I., giving the detail of the weights and gain or loss uf
each sheep, shows that most of them lost weight more or less at
one time or another during the progress of the experiment
Those in Pen 1, on hay-chaff alone, lost the most frequently, and
finally gave the least total increase ; but as the object in their
case was to put their capability of digesting cellulose or woody-
fibre to the test, a better rate of increase would have been objec-
tionable, as it might have indicated that they had too much of
the more easily digested non-nitrogenous compounds in their
food. On each of the four dietaries there is a general disposi-
tion to show a loss of weight during the latter half of June ; but
during tlie previous few weeks, immediately succeeding the
shearing, there had been a more than usual increase in gross
weight, after which hot weather set in somewhat suddenly.

The final result was, as shown in detail in Table VII., and in
summary in the 6th and 7th columns of Table IX., that, over a
period of half a year or more, the sheep upon hay-chaff alone
gave an average increase in live-weight of little more dian ^ lb.,
and those upon beans and hay, barley and hay, and beans linseed-
oil and hay, only about 1 lb. per head per week. Calculated
upon each 100 lbs. live-weight instead of per head, the increase
per week was only 6} ozs. upon hay-chaff alone, and only a

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 1 7

fraction over 12 ozs. upon each of the other descriptions of food,
notwithstanding that these comprised, besides hay-chafTaef /i^iVi/th,
in Pen 2, 1 lb. of beans, in Pen 3, 1 lb. of bariey, and in Pen 4,
beans and linseed oil equivalent to 1 lb. of bariey, per head per
day.

It should be remarked with regard to the above rates of in-
crease upon 100 lbs. live-weight per week, that the amount with
the hay-chalT alone is somewhat less than one-fourth, and that in
each of the other pens, with corn, <Scc., in addition, is somewhat
less than one-half of that which should be yielded by sheep fed
liberally, under cover, and having a fair proportion of succulent
food. It is reckoned that, over a fattening period of some
months, sheep so fed should give from 1^ to If lbs. of increase
per 100 lbs. live- weight per week.

Nor are the results any more satisfactory when considered in
connexion with the amounts of food consumed by a given weight
of animal within a given time, or required to produce a given
amount of increase.*

The third column of the Summary Table (IX.) shows that the
amount of food consumed per MX) lbs. live-weight per week was
17 lbs. 13 ozs. of hay alone, 19^ lbs. of hay and beans, 18f lbs: of
hay and barley, and 16 lbs. 6 ozs. of hay, beans, and linseed oil.
It is worthy of remark that the above amount of hay alone would
contain almost exactly the quantity of dry substance that is
reckoned to be consumed, on the average, when sheep are fed on
a good mixed diet of dry and succulent food ; that of the hay
and beans about 1^ lb., and that of the hay and barley about f lb.
in excess of such amount ; and that of the hay, beans, and linseed
oil — multiplying the oil 2 J times, and reckoning it as starch —
would contain very nearly the same amount of dry substance as
the hay and barley. It would appear, therefore, that the amount
of indigestible matter contained in the food, practically set a
limit to the quantity taken into the stomachs of the animals.

Consistently with the last supposition, the results given in the
4th column of the Summary Table (IX.) show that, in the case
of the hay-chalT alone, when the sheep had eaten as much as they
were able, there was but little digestible material left available
for increase after that which was necessary for respiration and
the other current functions of the body had been supplied.
Thus, it required 4339J lbs. of hay-chaff to produce 100 lbs.
increase in live-weight — an amount which would contain rather
more than four times as much dry substance as is necessary to
produce the same amount of increase with a good mixed diet of
succulent and dry food. In the three other experiments, in all
of which there was a much larger proportion of digestible and
assimilable matter, there was only about half as much dry sub-

1 8 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep,

stance of food required to produce the same amount of increase.
But, even in their case, the amount was more than twice as much
as is required with a good mixture containing a due propor-
tion of succulent food.

llie facts just stated show how important it is, in point of
economy, to supply fattening animals with food from which thrv
can store up a large amount of increase within a given time.
For, the great expenditure of the constituents of the food is in
keeping up the respiration and other current functions of life ;
and this, so to speak, unproductive expenditure will bear a much
larger proporti(m to a given amount of saleable increase when
the latter is but tardily store<l up.

Although, as has been stated, the amount of food required to
produce a given amount of increase was very large, even where
the sheep had beans, or barley, or beans and linseed-oil, in addi-
tion to the hay, a comparison of the results of the three experi-
ments is of some interest. "^The 1 lb. of beans per head per dav,
in Pen 2, supplied considerably more nitrogenous substance than
the 1 lb. of barley in Pen 3 ; yet it required almost identically
the same amount of beans as of barlev — and with the former
about 100 lbs. more of hay-chaff — to yield 100 lbs. increase in
live-weight ; and the live-weight of the sheep fed on the barlev
yielded a higher proportion of carcass, and also of loose inside
fat. In fact, the mixture of barley and hay was more fattening
than that of beans and hay.

It is quite consistent with the results of numerous former feed-
ing experiments, tliat, provided the supply of nitrogenous con-
stituents liave reached a sufficient amount, the increase of the
fattening animal should, beyond that point, be more dependent
upon the supply of digestible and assimilable n^m-nitrogenons
compounds than upon an increased amount of the nitrogenous
ones.

The comparison between the results of Pen 3 ami Pen 4 — ^the
former with barley, and the latter with a theoretically equivalent
mixture of beans and linseed-oil — is of especial interest.

If we suppose the amount of beans and oil actually adopted
in Pen 4 to have represented exactly, in theoretical equivalent,
the barley of Pen 3, so far as the mere supjdy of flesh-forming
and respirable and fat-forming material is concerned, the result
would show, in practice, a marked superiority where a certain
portion of starch was substituted by its calculated equivalent of
oil — that is, 2^ parts of starch by 1 part of oil. Thus, the
amount iof barley required was somewhat more than theoreti-
cally equivalent to the amount of beans and oil consumed to
produce 100 lbs. increase in live-weight ; and there were, be-
sides, about 50 lbs. more hay ccmsumcd with the barley than

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 19

with the beans and oil to yield that amount of increase. Again,
the average proportion of carcass in the fasted live-weight
was nearly 3 per cent, greater, and the average amount of inside
loose fat nearly 1^ time greater, in the sheep fed upon hay, beans,
and oil, than in those fed upon hay and barley.

So far as can be judged, the amounts of beans and oil actually
consumed per 100 lbs. live-weight in Pen 4 were perhaps slightly
more than equivalent, even theoretically, to the barley taken in
Pen 3 ; but certainly by no means sufficiently so to account for
the marked difference in the result There are, indeed, sufficient
reasons for concluding that, independently of mere supply of con-
stituents, the conditions of their concentration and digestibility,
and consequently of their assimilability, must have an influence in
determining the relative values for the various requirements of the
body, of substances which, in a general, or more purely chemical
sense, may still be justly looked upon as mutually replaceable ;
and although starch and oil are undoubtedly, within certain limits,
mutually replaceable in about the proportions above stated, it seems
but reasonable to suppose that the tax upon the system will be less
in the appropriation of ready-formed fat than of starch from which
it may be formed — at any rate for fat-storing, if not for respiration
also. The results of these two experiments, so far as they go, afford
evidence in favour of the view that such is in reality the case.
That in human dietaries there is an advantage in having a por-
tion of the non-nitrogenous matter supplied in the form of fat
(as in animal food), instead of nearly the whole of it as starch
and allied substances (as in bread, sugar, &c.), cannot be doubted.
In fact, one great object attained in fattening animals for the
food of man seems to be to get crude non-nitrogenous vegetable
products ready formed into fat for his use.

Before passing from a consideration of the results given in the
Summary Table, it may be interesting to remark that the propor-
tion of water drank to the food consumed was the greatest in
Pen 2, with the hay and beans — that is to say, where the amount
of nitrogenous substance consumed was the greatest This is

Suite consistent with the observations of ourselves and others,
lat, under otherwise equal circumstances, the larger the amount
of the nitrogenous constituents in the food, the greater will be
the amount of urea passed off in the urine, and that, as has recently
been shown, the greater the elimination of urea, the greater will
be the demand of the system for water. Again, there was a larger
proportion of water drank to actual food consumed in Pen 4, with
the beans, oil, and hay, than in Pen 3, with barley and hay ; but
it is worthy of remark, that when the amount of oil is multiplied
by 2*5, and so reckoned as starch, and the total amount of food
assumed to be in that degree greater in Pen 4, the proportion of

20 Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep.

water drank to food consumed, as so estimated, is very nearly
the same in the two cases.

Whilst referring to tlie subject of the amount of water drank,
attention may be directed to the connexioQ between the food and
water taken, and the temperature and its changes, as indicated
by the records given in Table V., which relate to weekly periods,
commencing April 13, and ending August 23.

The result indicated is, that there was in every pen a general
tendency to an increased consumption of food in proportion to a
given weight of the animal, towards the niiddle of the period,
and then towards the conclusion a diminution, which was tho
more marked the better the food and the greater the progress »!'
the animals. On the other hand, there was a diminution in the
proportion of water taken towards the middle, and then a slight
increase towards the end of the period. It is clear, therefore,
that the amount of water taken hsid not an undeviating relation
to the amount of food.

Nor had either the amount of food, or the amount of water, so
direct a connexion as might have been anticipated with mere
height of temperature, so far as this can be judged of by the
readings of a non-registering thermometer at the fixed hours
siXK'ified. They ap]>ear to have been far more influenced bv
changes, as indicated by the range of temperature at the respec-
tive hours during each weekly period, than by the condition of
atmosphere as marked by the average actual temperature of the
periods.

The very small quantity of water taken in every pen during
the week from May 17-24, is not to be attributed to conditions
of atmosphere alone, for, although the range of temperature at
the specified hours of the day (6 A.M., 12 M., and 5 P.M.) was
unusually great during that period, it is to be borne in mind that
it was on May 17 that the sheep lost their wool, which had
become very oppressive, and hence probably the large amount of
water taken for some time previously, and then the sudden and
very great decline. There was also a notable decline in the
amount of food consumed in each of the four pens during the
week immediately succeeding the shearing.

Finally in regard to the connexion l)etwcen temperature and
the amount of food consumed, it should be observed that the
records given in Table V. only relate to the spring and summer,
and to the actual temperature at three selected hoars of the day,
so th{kt they do not by any means so satisfactorily illustrate the
* influence of the conditions of atmosphere upon the consamption
of food as they would, had they included the preceding winter,
and also the registry of the maximum and minimum tempera*
tures, and the conditions of moisture. Nor, on the other haul,

Experiments on the Feeding of Sheep. 21

is die whole of the decline of consumption towards the end of
the period to be set down to the increased temperature as the
season advanced. There is, as a rule, a diminution in the amount
of food eaten in proportion to the weight of the body as animals
fatten, so that a portion of the diminution indicated in the Table
must be attributed to the progressive condition of the animals
as to maturity. Consistently with this, the diminution is the
least where the sheep had hay alone and scarcely increased at
all, and it is the greatest where the tendency -to fatten was also
the greatest.

In concluding this short supplementary report of experiment,
on Sheep-feeding, it may be well to state, in a few words, the scope
and main bearings of the series of Papers to which it belongs,
illustrative of the relations of the food consumed to the weight of
the animal, and to the increase in live-weight produced, under
different circumstances.

In the first article on the subject, published in the Society's
Journal now nearly thirteen years ago (vol. x. part i.), the chief
object was to show the comparative feeding values of different
descriptions of food ; and one important result arrived at was,
that when foods contain a certain proportion of nitrogenous sub-
stance, which is generally reached in the ordinarily adopted food
mixtures, the amounts required, both by a given weight of animal
within a given time, and to produce a given amount of increase
in live-weight, were then more dependent on the amount of the
digestible and assimilable n(>72-nitrogenous constituents than on
an increased proportion of the nitrogenous ones.

In the next series (vol. xii. part ii., vol. xiii. part i., and
vol. xvi. part i.) it was sought to show the comparative adapta-
bility of the most important improved breeds of sheep to the
modem system of early and rapid fattening, by means of liberal
feeding, combined with shelter from inclement weather. The
experiments on this subject being made with large numbers of
animals also provided reliable data for determining the average
amounts of food, and of its most important constituents, required
by a given weight of the animal within a given time, and to pro-
duce a given amount of increase in live-weight, under the system
of rapid fattening and early maturity.

In the last volume of the Journal (vol. xxii. part i.), it was
shown how great is the expenditure of food to produce a given
amount of saleable increase when the animals are fed beyond a
comparatively moderate degree of fatness.

The results now given show, on the other hand, that there may
also be a wasteful expenditure of constituents (by the respiration
and other current functions of the body) in proportion to the

Experiments oa the Feeding €f Sheep.

amount of saleable increase obtained, when the food does not
contain a su£5cient proportion of easily digestible and assimilable
constituents, or when diose constituents are not in part supplied
to the animal in the succulent condition of its natural food.

It remains to show from the results of the experiments now
under consideration, whether or not cellulose or woodj-fibre,
which enters so largely into the composition of many of onr
current food-stuffs, is digestible and available for the purposes of
the animal economy ? and if it be so, in what proportions, and
whether in greater or less degree according to the character of the
constituents associated with it ? But, as already intimated, as the
settlement of these questions requires the determination of the
cellulose not only in the food consumed but in the excrements
voided, the consideration of the results relating to them — ^though
illustrative of the feeding rather than the manure value of the
foods — is reserved until we enter into the general question of the
relation of the composition of the excrements of animals to that
of the food they consume.

Bothamsted, January, 1862.

LONDON :

Printed by William Clowes and Sons, Stamfurd Street,

and Charing CroM.

THE

UTILISATION OF TOWN SEWAGE.

J. B. LA WES, Esq., F.R.S., F.C.S.

LONDON:
PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAm^OKD STREET,

AND OUABING 0B06S.
1863.

FBOM THE
JOUBNAIi or THE B07AL AGBIOOLTORAL SOQIErT OP ESQhkSlK

VOL. XXiy^ PABT I.

UTILISATION OF TOWN SEWAGE.

one can read the evidence given before the Select Com-
tee ** On Sewage of Towns," appointed by the Honse of
Qmons last Session, without being struck with the great
erences of opinion elicited during the examination of the
desses. Whilst one and all agpree that sewage is a most
lable manure, containing every constituent necessary to be
lied to the land for our crops, they differ in a remarkable
ree both as to the commercial value of a given amount
&ewage, and as to the quantity requisite to be applied to a
sn area of land.

)ne witness who had been engaged for years in the applica-
L of sewage, and whose evidence is said in the ^' Analysis of
dence" to be "entitled to great weight," gave it as his
[lion that 300 tons of sewage per acre would accomplish the
Le results as the 10,000 tons which he had in point of fact
^lied I Another witness, just returned from a visit of inspec-
1 of the sewage meadows at Edinburgh and Rugby, considered

inferiority of the produce at Rugby to be due to the much
iller quantity of sewage there applied, the amount ranging
n 3000 to 9000 tons per acre ; whilst, in the case of the Edin-
^h meadows to which he referred, it was estimated by the
le witness at 10,000 to 12,000 tons per acre, and to be as
h as 30,000 to 40,000 tons on some of the meadows in that
ility.

U to the money value of the excrementitious matters of each
K>n contributing to sewage, it was assumed that the results
titled by one witness showed it to be about 20^., and those
iiother about Is, 9d. per head per annum. Again, estimates
^e value of a ton of sewage varied from about a halfpenny to
H 9d» And, finally, the evidence showed that in some cases

4 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

the sewage of only about two persons, and in others that of 300,
or more, had been applied to an acre of land.

The Royal Sewage Commission, appointed some years ago
^'to inquire into the best mode of distributing the sewage of
towns, and applying it to beneficial and profitable uses," in the
prosecution of tfieir inquiry, visited almost every locality where
town sewage was applied in any way to the purposes of agri-
culture, and the evidence they collected was almost as conflicting
as that published by the Committee of the House of Commons
above referred to. Feeling how important it was that the public
should be put in possession of more exact and reliable data on
a subject involving such vast sanitary and economical interests,
the Commission, of which I am a member, decided upon insti-
tuting some careful experiments on the agricultural application
of sewage. The experiments were made at Rugby, upon grass-
land, on which, as above alluded to, the sewage was applied at
the rate of from 3000 to 9000 tons per acre per annum, and the
Report, giving the results obtained in the first season (1861), has
already been presented to both Houses of Parliament.*

It is proposed to lay before the readers of the ^ Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society ' such portions of this report as bear
more directly upon the interests of agriculture.

As, however, the Committee of the House of Commom^ in
their '^ Analysis of Evidence" above referred to, give it as tbeir
opinion "that sewage is applicable to all crops, and disit if
commercial results are sought for, it should be applied in small
dressings," it may appear to some that it would have been well
had the Commission experimented upon com and other crops as
well as grass, and applied the sewage in smaller quantities per
acre. It may be advisable, therefore, to mention some of the
circumstances which influenced the Commission in limiting' their
experiments in the first instance to grass alone, and in deciding
upon the quantities of sewage to be applied. It will be sa£Bcient
to cite the previous experience obtained at Watford, Rugby, and
Edinburgh on these points.

The chairman of the Commission, the Earl of Essex, who rmCi
the sewage of the town of Watford, had laid down pipes far iH
application over 210 acres of mixed arable and grass-land ; bat
had been led by experience to limit the application to bat a small
proportion of that area, and almost exclusively to either

* *' Second Report of the Commission appointed to inquire into the best modeef
difltribating the Sewage of Towns, and applying it to benefleisl and proMbfc

:• (is«s.)

Utilisation of Toicn Sewage* 5

nent meadow, or Italian rjre-grass. Indeed, in his evidence
before the Committee of the House of Commons last year, his
Lordship stated that practically he limited the application tQ
about 10 acres of Italian rye-grass, and 35 acres of meadow-land ;
for the former of which he required about 5000 tons per acre per
annum ; and that for the latter the amount remaining at his dis-
posal was inadequate.

At Rugby about 6700 of the population contribute to the
sewage, and pipes were laid down for its application to about
470 acres of mixed arable and grass-land. The quantity of sewage
pumped daily (which is by no means the total yield of the town),
averages about 750 tons, and, reckoning 300 working days, this
gives a supply of 225,000 tons per annum. If this amount were
equally distributed over the 470 acres piped for its application,
the supply would be something less than ,500 tons sewage per
acre per annum. But when the Commission first visited Rugby,
in order to arrange with Mr. Walker, the proprietor of the land
and of the sewage works, and with Mr. Campbell, the tenant of
about 190 acres, for the use of a few acres of the land, and a
supply of sewage, they found that the practical exp^ience of
some years had led to the limitation of the application almost
exclusively to gprass, and also, in a great measure, to the aban-
donment of the use of the hose and jet, and the substitution of
open runs. The sewage, instead of being applied to 470 acres
of mixed arable and grass land, was limited to but a fraction of
that area ; and Mr. Campbell, who had pipes laid down for
about 190 acres, and was paying rent accordingly, had abandoned
the use on all but about a dozen acres of permanent meadow or
Italian rye-grass.

Neither Mr. Campbell, nor the present or previous tenant of
the other portion of the land laid out for sewage irrigation at
Rugby, was examined before the Committee of the House of
Commons last year ; but in a pamphlet since published by the
former gentleman, giving the results of his experience for eight
years as a sewage farmer, he states ^^ that he should expect a
better paying return from 50 acres with 4500 tons per acre per
annum, than from 100 acres with 2250 tons per acre."

It seemed impossible to account for the abandonment, at Wat-
ford and at Rugby, of the use of sewage to crops generally, and
in comparatively small amounts per acre, after so large an outlay
had been incurred, entirely with a view to its application in these
very ways,, excepting on the supposition that the practice W8^
not found to be profitable ; and, to say nothing of evidence
derived from other sources leading in the same direction Iq

6 Utilisation of Toton Sewage,

regard to the points in question, the Commission would hartllv
have been deemed justified in instituting experiments at Rugbj
in accordance with the plans originally adopted there on a more
extensive scale than anywhere else, and abandoned, as unprofitable,
after the experience of some years. It was, therefore, decided to
confine the experiments, at any rate in the first instance, to grass
land ; to apply as a minimum as small a quantity of sewage as,
having regard to the evidence at command, appeared likely to
be effective ; and, to apply as a maximum an amount below the
quantities known to be employed at Edinburgh with so much
success.

Extracts from t/ie Rejfort of the Royal Seioage Commimcn,

^* At Rugby the whole of the available sewage of the town is
rented by G. H. Walker, Esq. ; and, after being collected in a
large tank erected for the purpose, it is distributed, by means of
a steam-engine, through iron pipes laid down for the supply to
about 470 acres of mixed arable and grass land ; hydrants being
fixed at intervals along the lines for surface distribution, either
by hose or open runs. These arrangements were obviously well
adapted for the purposes of the inquiry the Commission had in
view. Experience, at Rugby as well as elsewhere, seemed clearly
to indicate that, to obtain the largest amount and value of pro-
duce at the least proportionate cost for distribution, dilute liquid
sewage should be applied to the growth of succulent crops ; and
that it is best adapted for grass. It was decided, therefore, to
confine the experiments, at any rate at present, to grass land.
Accordingly, the Commission availed themselves of the kindness
of G. H. Walker and J. A. Campbell, Esqs., to operate upon
about 15 acres of grass land in the neigldxrarfaood of Rugby
supplied with sewage as above described.

*' It also appears that produce of the kind in question is better
adapted for the feeding of cows for the production of milk than
for any other purpose. It was decided, therefore, to devote the
produce of one portion of the sewage-irrigated grass land to be
cut green and given to milking cows. It, nevertheless, seemed
desirable to test the fattening qualities of such produce, when
cut green, and given to stock in the fresh state; and also to
determine how &r it is adapted for making into hay. Accord-
ingly, it was proposed that the produce of a second portion of
the experimental land should be given, in the green state^ to

Utilisation of Town Sewage. 7

fattening oxen ; and that that of a third should be made into
hay, provided that the season and other circumstances would
allow of it.

** Assuming that the ultimate object of the experiments is
to provide such information as may be taken as the basis of
arrangements for the application of the sewage of towns in the
manner the most advantageous both to urban and rural interests,
it is sought to determine, as far as possible : —

^^ 1. The amount and composition of the produce, in relation
to the volume of water supplied to the land by irrigation, to the
amount of manurial constituents so applied, and to the popu-
lation contributing the manurial constituents to the water.

*^ 2. The most profitable method of applying the produce ; that
is whether it should be used in the green state or as hay ;
whether for the production of milk or of ineat ; and whether it
should be consumed -alone, or in conjunction with other food.

^^ The 15 acres of grass land consisted of two fields, the one
of five, and the other of ten acres. For the purpose of the expe-
riments they were laid out, by Mr. Bickford, in small surface
drains, or ^ runs,' according to the plan described in Vol. XIII.
of tlie ^Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England;'
and, at the upper end of each a tank holding 3^ tons has been
fixed, by means of which the amount of sewage applied to any
given portion of land is accurately gauged. From these tanks,
too, when full, samples of the sewage-water are taken, at stated
intervals, for the determination of its chemical composition. The
field of 10 acres has been divided, by an iron bullock-fence,
into two equal parts. There were dius at command three por-
tions of land of five acres each ; these were respectively set out
into four plots to be treated as follows : —

" Plot 1. To be unsewaged.

^ Plot 2. To be irrigated with sewage at the rate of 3000 tons
per acnre per annum.

'^ Plot 3. To be sewaged at the rate of 6000 tons per acre per
annum.

" Plot 4. To be sewaged at the rate of 9000 tons per acre per
annum.

*^ The produce of one set of experiments has been given, in
the green state, to fattening oxen ; that of the second set (in the
same condition) to milking cows ; and that of the third (though,
as afterwards explained, very little sewage was applied to it) has
been made into nay.

Uttlitatian of Town Sewage.

"The results obtained in the first year's experiments, con-
ducted as above described, are briefly summarised, under separate

heads, in the present short Report It will be obvioii%

however, that the results of a first season only must be taken as
little more than initiative on many points ; and that their nume-
rical indications cannot be taken as the basis of safe deduction
in regard to the economical questions at issue without mach
caution and reservation.

1. Quantities of Sewage applied^ and of Green Produce obtained!

Table T. — Showing the number of Tons of Sewage-water applied on each
Plot, up to the end of October, in each of the two Fietds.

. FiBST Season, 1861.

SCWAOB-WATEB YEB ACBS.

Ftve4Kre Flelii.

ToMcreFieUOiAlO.

Plots.

Plot 4.

PtotS.

FMi

March

April

May

June

July

Angoft .. ..
September.. .. i
October .. ..

Tom.
632*05
279-85
75*82
78-78
531*67
130 60
143*14
201*69

Tons.
1045- 12
666*40
96-49
223*32
430*18
580*17
703-33
678-23

TOBO.

1444*16
1176*98
97*66
577-23
654*05
787*28
614-78
800-66

Tons.

563-04
18*32

512-01

325-90

33*98

83-98

Tool.

1145*91
64-14

393-18
316*30
517 72
367-69

T«nL

1376-91
118*8t
392*26
905-75

691*11
381*81
455*84

Total ..

9073-60

4433*93

6152-74

1387*38

3803*93

4236-48

Rate per anDom

3110*40

6634-84

9229*11

3378-U

4806-74

•

7345-39

^ In the five-acre field, the produce of which was devoted to
the feeding of oxen, the application of sewage did not commence
until March 6, 1861, none having been applied in 18S0. Bat
the quantities applied on the respective plots up to the end of
October were, upon the whole, pretty nearly at the rates in-
tended ; namely, those of 3000, 6000, and 9000 tons per acie
per annum.

^*The ten-acre field had been dressed with undetermined
amounts of sewage in 1860, and during February of the year of
the experiments (1861), by the previous tenant; it had been fed
down very close by sheep and other stock, up to nearly the end

Utilisation of Toum Sewage.

CO
QO

■a

£
i

0*0^0001910 01

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00

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qra. Ibt.

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0 8

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Biay
June

July.. ..
August ..
September
October ..
NoTember
I)ec«mber

•
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10 Utilisation of Town Sewage*

of March ; and the application of sewage, under the direction oi
the Commission, did not commence until April I. Unfor-
tunately the amount of sewage available in this field was very
much less than was desired, so much so that the plots on the
portion allotted to be cut g^een for milking cows did not receive
the quantities intended, even though, after a few weeks, the
application on the portion devoted to hay was entirely aban-
doned, in the hope of securing enough for the other.

" In both fields, owing to derangement and repair of the
works, the supply of sewage was very inadequate during portions
of the growing months of May and June.

" The upper portion of the Table (II.) shows the distribution
of the produce of the respective plots throughout the season,
according to the amounts of sewage applied ; and the lower part
shows the amounts of produce yielded in each successive crop
under the same variation of circumstances. The results, as
given in the upper portion, show not only how very much more
total produce was obtained by the application of sewage, but
also over what a much . more extended period of the season an
abundance of g^reen food was obtainable when large quantities of
sewage were applied ; and it should be observed that, in both
fields, plots 3 and 4, to which the largest amounts of sewage
were applied, might with advantage have been cut earlier, and
they would then have yielded mdch larger crops during May
than are recorded for that month. On the other hand, in some
cases not inconsiderable amounts of produce were obtained even
as late as November. It is, however, probable that, in practice,
it will not be advantageous to cut later than October ; and it was
only done in this case as a means of better estimating the quan-
tity of the produce yielded. The lower portion of the Table
shows that there is, in almost every case, an increase of produce
at each successive cutting with each increase of sewage applied.
It will be seen further on that the produce of the earlier cuttings
contained a larger proportion of dry substance than that of the
later ones ; and also that the sewaged gnas difiered considerably
both in the proportion and composition of its dry substance
according to the quantities of sewage applied, and still more
from the unsewaged gprass.

^^The proportion of produce obtained to sewage applied if
better seen in Table III., where the amounts of sewage intended^
and actually applied up to the end of October, the amounts of
total produce, and the amounts of increase of produce for each
1000 tons of sewage applied, are given side by side.

UtUitatian of Town Setatge.

Tablb III. — Showing the Quantities of Sewage applie<l up to the end of
October, and the total Amounts of Green Grass obtained per Acre, &c.

First Season, 1861.

Skwagk.

PBOmiCB.

Quantities
required.

Quantities
actually

applied to

.end of

October.

Total

Green Onus

pCT Acre.

^icreawof
Grnen Grass for

Pfer
Annum.

To end

of
October.

each 1000 tons of

Sewi^ appUed to-

end of October.

Five-acre Field. — IVoduce given to Oxen.

Plot 1 (2 cattings^ . .
Plot 2 U cuttings^ ..
Plot 3 (4 cuttings^ . .
Plot 4 (4 cuttings) ..

tons.

None.
3000
6000
9000

tons.
None.

1981
3962
5942

tuna.

tons cwts. qrt.

lbs.

tons cwts. qra.

Iba.

None.

9 5 3

• •

1872*

14 16 3

2 19 1

4423

27 1 0

4 0 1

6153

32 16 3

3 16 2

Half of ten-acre Field.

— Produce given to Cows

•

Plot 1 (2 cuttings^ . .
Plot 2 U cQttings^ ..
Plot 3 (4 cuttings^ . .
Plot 4 (4 cuttings) . .

None.
3000
6000
9000

None.
1769
3538
5308

•

None.
1387
2804
4226

8 18 0 15
15 16 3 2
22 15 2 12
26 13 3 12"

4 19 3 23
4 18 3 23
4 4 0 20

** The two fields were nearly a mile apart ; the five-acre field was
nearly level, and the ten-acre one considerably sloping. When,
in addition to these facts, the different previous treatment of the
two fields, as already referred to, the different amounts of sewage
actually applied up to the dates ending the experimental season,
and the fact that the dates of the cuttings on the respective plots
differed according to the amounts of sewage, and the consequent
progress of the grass, are taken into consideration, it appears
probable that the amount of produce would, under equal circum-
stances, bear a very close relation to the quantity of sewage
applied, pretty nearly up to the maximum limit contemplated.

** The produce without sewage was, in each field, equal to more
than two and a-half tons of hay per acre. It was rather less in
the ten-acre field than in the other ; owing, doubtless, to the
fact that the grass had there been fed down so close in March,
before the commencement of the experiment

** In the five-acre field the increase of green grass obtained for
each 1000 tons of sewage applied, was scarcely 3 tons where the
application was at the rate of about 3000 tons per acre per annum ;

* " In this case, the last cutting was on October 9, and the produce is, therefore,
calculated against the sewage applied to the end of September only."

12 UtiliMotion of Toian Snoage,

fully 4 tons where at the rate of about 6000 tons ; and somewhat
under 4 tons where at the rate of about 9000 tons. In the ten-
acre, and more sloping field, where the sewage was better dis-
tributed over the lower and further portions of the plots, and
which had been sewaged the year previously, and even early in
1861, before the commencement of the experiments, the increase
of green grass for each 1000 tons of sewage experimentally ap-
plied was greater, amounting in each case to over 4, and, in two
out of the three, to nearly 5 tons. As an averagre of all the results
obtained in the two fields, it may be stated that the amount of
increase of green grass yielded for 1000 tons of sewage applied
was, in this first year of the experiments, equal to only about
three-fourths of a ton of hay.

II. Results of the Experiments with Oxen.

** Ten Hereford oxen were tied up in a shed ; two to be fed
on unsewaged g^rass, and the remaining eight to receive sewaged
grass, as it was ready to cut, indiscriminately firom the three
plots in the five-acre field, to which sewage was to be applied,
respectively at the rate of 3000, 6000, and 9000 tons per acre
per annum. The animals had the grass alone for a period of
16 weeks ; namely, from May 27 to September 16. They had
then, for a further period of four weeks, in addition to the grass,
4 lbs. of oilcake per head per day."

' " The average results over the whole period during which the
oxen had grass alone, are given in the following Table (IV.), and
to these the few comments that it is necessary to make will be
confined. The points shown are, the quantities of sewage de-
sigpied to be applied, and the quantities actually applied on each
plot up to the end of October ; the average amounts respectivelj
of unsewaged and of sewaged grass consumed per head daily ;
the number of weeks the produce of each acre would keep one
ox ; the pounds of increase in live-weight that the produce of
each acre would yield ; the value of the increase in Iiv^weight
from each acre, at id, per lb. ; and the value of the increase in
live-weight obtained from the increase of produce yielded for
1000 tons of sewage applied.

*^The oxen weighed more per head than the experimental
cows, but their daily consumption per head both of unsewaged
and of sewaged grass was considerably less. It is quite obvious
from the results given in the Table, that grass of the description
in question is not adapted for the fattening of oxen without the
addition of other food. Indeed, one of the animals on the sew-
aged grass weighed 52 lbs. less at the conclusion than at the
commencement of the experiment ; and the maximam increase

.UtilwUian of Town Sewage.

** Table IV.— Showing the Results of the Experiments with Oxen wTien fed

on Green Grass alone.

BBA60K, 1861.

Unsewaged
GraaB.

Savaged GnuM.

Plotl,

Ptoi 2.

Plots.

l^t4.

Tons of sewage to be applied per a(^|
peraDDum ^ j

Tods of sewage required to end ofV
October )

Tons of sewage actually applied to)
endofOctaW i

• •

89*8
33-1

87-9

£. 5. d.
1 9 4

• •

3000

1721*

1872*

6000
8962
4423

9000
5942
6153

Grass oonsomed per head daily lbs.

105' 2

Weeks the produce of each acre would )
keep one ox /

Increase in liye-weight that the pro-|
doce of each acre would yield lbs./

Value of increase in live-weight from)
each acre at \d, per lb f

Value of increase in live-weight f^om |
the increased produce of 1000 tonsl
wwage J

45-1

134*4

£. ». d.
2 4 10

0 8 3

82-3

2450

£. 8. d.
4 1 8

0 11 10

99-9

297 '4

£. 8, d,
4 19 2

0 U 4

of any one wa« 103 lbs. in the 16 weeks, or at tbe rate of rather
less than 6^ lbs. per week. Taking the average of the two and
of the eight oxen respectively, those upon unsewaged grass gave
scarcely 2^ lbs., and those upon se waged grass scarcely 2^ lbs.,
increase per 1000 lbs. live-weight per week ; whereas, feeding
on good fattening food, such oxen should give 9 to 10 lbs. in-
crease per 1000 lbs. live -weight per week. In fact, these very
animals did give increase at this, and even a higher rate, during
the subsequent four weeks, when they had, in addition to the

grass, 4 lbs. of oilcake per head per day There can be

no doubt, therefore, that with a proper allowance of oilcake, or
some such food^ a very diiferent result would have been obtained
throughout. It was, however, desirable that in the first experi-
ments the grass should be tried alone.

** III. Results of the Experiments with Cows.

** Twelve cows were selected by Mr. Campbell from his large
herd, and were placed in a house by themselves. Two of these
were to be fed up<m unsewaged grass, and the remaining ten
upon sewaged grass, mown as it was ready indiscriminately from
the three acres receiving respectively different quantities of

1» this ease (o the cud of September only ; see note to Table III.'

UtUisQjtiQn of Taum Seuxu/e.

sewage. Like the oxen, the cows received grass alone for a
period of 16 weeks, after which they had a similar addition of
oilcake for a period of four weeks."

*^ Attention will here be confined to the average results over
the period of 16 weeks during which the cows were fed on grass
alone. These are given in the follow kig Table (V.), which
shows the particulars of the sewage applied to each plot ; the
average quantity of unsewaged and of sewaged grass consumed
by each cow daily ; the average yield of milk per head daily ;
the number of weeks the produce of the respective acres would
keep one cow ; the number of gallons of milk the produce of
each acre would yield ; the gross value of the milk from each
acre at 8^. per gallon ; and the value (at the same rate) of the
milk obtained from the increased produce of each 1000 tons of
sewage applied.

" Table V. — Showing the Results of the Experiments with Ck)W8 when fed o&

Green Grass alone.

Season, 1861.

Tons of sewage to be applied per4
acre per annum j

Tons of sewage reqaired to end)
of October )

Tons of sewage actually applied!
to end of October /

Grass consumed per head daily lbs.
Average yield of milk per nead
daily lbs

Weeks the produce of each acre .

would keep one cow ... .. i
Gallons of milk the produce of)

each acre would yield . . ..)
Value of milk from the produce \

of each acre at 8d. per gallon
Value of milk from the increased)

produce of 1000 tons sewage

Unsewaged
Grass.

Plotl.

150-2
24-89

19-0
321*4

;

Sewaged G

Plot 2.

3000
1769
1387

Plots.

6000
3538
2804

Plot 4.

9000
5308
4226

1240
20-53

40*9

58-8

570-7

820*4

£. 8. d.

£. ». d.

19 0 6

27 6 11

5 19 10

5 18 8

68-9

961*3

£. s. dL
32 0 10

5 0 II

^^ As already stated, the produce of the three acres of sewaged
grass was gircn to the cows indiscriminately, as it was ready ;
as, to have done otherwise, on the assumption that the milk-
yielding quality of the grass obtained from the land receiTing
diffisrent quantities of sewage was weight for weight diflferent,
would greatly have complicated the experiments without the
probability that the results could be taken as indicating, with

UtiliseUian of Town Sewage, 15

any certainty, tbe distinctions supposed. It will be understood,
therefore, that the basis of the above estimates as to the amount
and value of the milk yielded from each acre is the amount
of grass obtained from each acre.

" The results show that the quantity of milk obtainable from
the produce of each acre of land depended very much upon the
quantity of sewage applied. Deducting the value of the milk
produced from the grass of the unsewaged from that from each
of the sewaged acres, reckoning it at id* per gallon, it appears
that where about 1400 tons of sewage were applied during the
seven months, the produce calculated for each 1000 tons of
sewage actually applied gave an increased amount of milk to the
value of 5/. 19^. \hd, ; where twice that amount of sewage was
applied, 5/. 18^. %d, ; and where three times the quantity,
5/. Os. Ud.

'^ It will be observed that the cows on unsewaged grass both
consumed more and yielded more milk per head per day than
those on sewaged grass ; but the proportion of milk to a given
amount of fresh g^ass consumed is almost identical in the two
cases. As will be seen further on, however, the unsewaged grass
contained a considerably higher proportion of dry or solid sub-
stance than the sewaged. The question arises whether, or in
what degree, the comparatively limited consumption of sewaged
grass (with the coincident lower actual yield of milk per head),
was due to its very great succulence, the proportion of water to
dry substance in the food practically setting the limit to the con-
sumption. However this may be, the result was that a given
amount of dry substance of the sewaged grass yielded very
much more milk than the same amount of that of the un-
sewaged.

" IV. Composition of the Sew(Zffe-fFater,

^^ Samples of the sewage-water, as it was delivered into each
field, were taken as follows : — Whilst the sewage was distri-
buting, samples of about a quart were taken at intervals of two
or three hours, from the full gauge tank in the field, which
held 3^ tons of the fluid. These samples were collected in a
carboy for a period of a week, when, after well agitating, a
sample of the mixture was sent to Professor Way for analysis.
During the first two or three months of the experiments such
^mples were taken nearly every week, but afterwards only every
fourth week. There were thus, for the months of April to
October inclusive, 12 samples of sewage- water from each field
submitted to analysis/'

[The results of the 12 analyses of sewage- water from the five-

Uiiluaiion of Town Sewage.

acre field are given in Table L, p. 27, and those of the samples
from the ten-acre field in Table II., p. 28, in the Appendix.]

^' A summary of these, with an additional column, showing
the constituents in 1000 tons of sewage, is given in Table VI.
below ; and the results as there recorded will be sufficient for
consideration on the present occasion. There are there given
the mean composition per gallon of the 12 samples firom the five-
acre field, of the 12 from the ten-acre field, and of the 24
samples ; also the amount of each of the several constituents in
1000 tons of the sewage*water according to the mean of the
24 analyses.

** Table VL — Showing the mean Composition per gallon, and per 1000 tons,

of the Sewage-water.

Seven Months — April to October inclusive, 18fil.

Mean Grains per Gallon.

Lbs.

Gontiitaeata.

12 Sample!

from tno

S-acra FleVd.

12 Samples

from the

lOHM^re Field.

The
34 Samples.

per 1000
Tom.

' In solutiou
Organic matter 1° 8^Pe°«o«

10-26
16-75

10-30
11-57

10-28
14-16

329
453

Total

27-01

21-87

24-44

782

Inorganic matter <

' In solntion
In suspension

Total ..

36-82
16-18

35*85
12-55

36-34
14-36

1163
459

53-00

48-40

50-70

1622

Total solid matter

80-01

70-27

75-14

2404

AiDBionia «. ••

' In solntion
In suspension

Total ..

4 99
1-65

4*98
118

4- 98
1-41

159
45

6 64

6-16

6-39

204

Potass*

Phosphoric acid *

1-12
0-87

0-95
0-99

1-04
0*93

33
30

*^ Reference to the Appendix Tables will show that the com-
position of the sewage differed very much indeed, and pretty
equally so in the two fields, at different periods of the season ;
depending upon the amount of water reaching the sewers, and
the consequent state of dilution of the sewage. The Table given

* ** The potass and phosphoric acid were determined in two samples only in eadi

Utilisaiion of Taum Sewage. 17

above shows, however, a« was to be expected, that the average
composition of the sewage collected in the two fields was almost
identical. The only difference of any importance is in the
amount of suspended matter ; there being less organic matter,
inorganic matter, and ammonia, in suspension, in the sewage
collected in the 10- acre field than in that from the other.

*^ Without going into any detail on the point on the present
occasion, attention may be called to the fact that the column
showing the amount of the several constituents in 1000 tons of
the sewage, considered in relation to the amounts of increased
produce obtained by that quantity of sewage, as shown in Table III.,
indicates that the constituents of dilute liquid sewage can by no
means be valued at the same rates as those in portable, artificial
manures, such as guano. In illustration it may be stated that
the quantity of ammonia estimated to be contained, on the
average, in 1000 tons of the sewage, is equal to the nitrogen of
the mixed excrements of about 21 or 22 persons of a mixed
population of both sexes and all ages for a year, and to that in
about 11 cwts. of Peruvian guano ; and the total solid matter in
1000 tons of the sewage is seen to be somewhat more than a ton.
The average amount of increase of produce obtained by the
application of this large quantity of manurial matter was, how-
ever, only equal to about three-fourths of a ton of hay ; never-
theless, as has been shown, the increase of grass bore a pretty
obvious relation to the amount of sewage employed, until the
latter approached (during the actual period of the experiment)
the rate of about 9000 tons per acre per annum.

** It is further worthy of remark that the mean composition of
the Rugby sewage, as given above, differs comparatively little
from that which published analyses indicate for the sewage of
London; and the correspondence is the closer when, having
regard to the relative amounts of sewage to which the different
analyses are applicable, the calculated average instead of the
mere arithmetical mean composition of the sewage is taken in
the two cases. Thus, the average proportion of total solid matter
in the Rugby sewage for seven months, up to the end of October,
1861, was about 11^ grains per gallon, whilst the average
amount in London sewage appears to be about 91 grains. The
correspondence in the amount of ammonia, which, more than
any other constituent, indicates the relation of population to the
amount of water, is, however, much more striking. Over the
seven months the average amount of ammonia in the Rugby
sewage is estimated to be 6*65 grains per gallon ; and, founded
on the rate of flow of sewage and the analyses given by Dr.
Letheby of both the day and night sewage from 10 different
sewers, the average amount of ammonia in me sewage of London

18 Utilisation of Town Sewage,

is calculated to be 6*66 grains per gallon. Taking 10 lbs. of
ammonia to represent the mixed excrements of one individual of
a mixed population of both sexes and all ages for a year, 1000
tons of the sewage of either London or Rugby would, according'
to the above estimates, contain the exc^rements of about 21 or
22 individuals.

*' V. Composition of the Unsewaged and Sewaged Grass.

" It was obviously of great importance to determine the pro-
portion of dry or solid substance contained in the produce cut,
weighed, and given to the animals, in a green and verj succulent
condition ; to determine the difference in composition due to the
application of sewage ; and also that of the successive crops
taken at different periods of the season. To this end samples of
2i lbs. of the unsewaged, or 5 lbs. of the sewaged grass, were
taken from every load as soon as it was weighed at the home-
stead, the samples from each plot respectively being mixed
together day by day as taken, until the cutting of the plot was
completed. Each such mixed sample was exposed on sheets of
canvas in the open air until sufficiently dry. It was then stored
in sacks, and finally cut into coarse chaff, well mixed, weighed,
and a weighed portion of the mixture taken for the purposes of
analysis. *

* '* 50 oauces of the coarsely-cut chafif were taken in each case, and each of
these samples was carefully divided into 4 equal parts ; two of which were fblly
dried at 212'^ F. to determine the absolute dry substance, and then burnt to deter-
mine the mineral matter, and a third was finely ground, and a portion of it aent
to Professor Way for analysis.

''It should here be remarked that there are many practical difficoltiea in the way
of getting accurate results in regard to the amount of dry substance in lai^ be \m
of green produce such as those in question. Cut in the morning, as the crops alwi^
were, the grass generally held a good deal of superfidal as well as other moisture,
and, with equal conditions of weather, the heavier the crop the greater the amount
of water so retained. Again, if tlie weather were dry and hot, the grass would kae
moisture considerably between the time of cutting and that of weighing and «»tnpli»y
at the farm buildings ; or, if rain^, the grass would be more or less saturated with
water. To add to these difficulties, which are almost inseparable tmm aach a»
inquiry, the taking of the samples, and their partial drying and presenratioo, were
necessarily left in the hands or those unpractised in such work.

"It will be obvious from the above considerations, that the exact figures given
which relate to or involve the question of the prcmortion of dry sahatanee in the
produce must be accepted with some reservation ; though it is believed thai at any
rate the direction and more general indications of the results on the point may fblly
be relied upon. Tbe results siven of the analyses of the dry substance itself will,
of course, be much less affectei by the irvegularities referred to ; and the dUfieraiees
in its eomposition, according to the difference in the conditions of growth, arejpiunti
well worthy of a careful consideration in a hitherto untrodden 6^ of inquiry.

" It should be added that, taking advanta^ of the experience of the past year,
all possible precautious are being taken to eliminate avoidable irregnlaiities in Ae
oondnet of tais part of the work during the present season (1862) ; and So Mcart
greater oniformitjr and certunty in the partial drying and preservatioo of die speci-
meaSf a small drying-hi>ute, heated \ri a aiove, has ^n erected.**

Utilitation of Town Sevage,

Table VII. — Showing the Amounts of Dry Substance in the Unsewaged

and Sewaged Grass.

FiBST Season, 1861.

Mean per cent. Dry Substance In Fresh Qraas.

First Crop.

Second Crop.

Third Crop.

FoorthCh^.

Five-acre Field.

Plotl

25- !♦

27-9

24*4

• •

Plots

f Sewaged^

• •

30 '5

19-8

13-4

• •

Plots

?Sewaged^

• •

30-4*

26*9

14*2

18-7

15*4 •

Plot 4

(Sewaged)

• •

15- 8*

27-7

13-7

12-9

9-6

Ten -acre Field.

Plot 1 rUnsewaged)
Plot 2 (Sewaged^ . .
Plot 3 (Sewaged) ..
Plot 4 (Sewaged) ..

22*0

26*9

• •

23*3

171

12-6

16-9

21*4

15-1

7-8

15*1

18*4

16*1

14-4

17-8

*^ The figures given in the above Table show that the propor-
tion of the dry substance in the g^ass varied very much indeed
according to circumstances. The first crop contained, generally,
a higher proportion than the second, particularly in the case of the
sewaged grass ; and the second a higher proportion than the diird
or fourth. It also appears that the unsewaged grass averaged a
higher proportion oif dry substance than the sewaged. These
results are quite in accordance with what would be expected from
the known variations in the conditions of growth. The exact
proportions of dry substance found, and recorded in the Table,
depended, however, very much indeed upon the stage of growth
at which the produce of the respective plots or crops was cut,
and upon the condition of the weather at the time of cutting.
Thus, the first crop of sewaged grass, particularly in the 5-acre
field, was, for the most part, too ripe when cut, and hence the
very large relative proportion of dry substance which on the ave-
rage it contained. Again, in both fields, a considerable portion
of the second crop of the unsewaged grass was much riper when
cut than that of the sewaged. On the other hand, some of the
crops, especially portions of the third and fourth, were cut and
sampled in a very wet condition, and to this, in a certain sense.

• «<

These samples were taken before Jane 20, and were, by mistake, weighed
w|th scales not sufficiently accarate for the purpose ; the results are, therefore,
giten separately."

UtUuation of Town Sewage,

accidental, though unavoidable circumstance, most be attributed
the very low proportion of dry substance found in some cases.

*^ The general result was, that the animals which had the un-
sewaged grass received considerably more dry or solid substance
in a given weight of the fresh produce than those which had the
sewaged grass. Hence, though the oxen on unsewaged grasi
consumed much less of the fresh food in relation to their weight
than those on the sewaged, they nevertheless took into their
stomachs quite as large a proportion of real dry or solid matter as
the others. The cows on the unsewaged grass consumed, how-
ever, even more of their fresh food, with its higher proportion of
dry substance, than did those on the sewaged ; and they, at the
same time, gave a larger quantity of milk, almost exactly in pro-

e)rtion to the increase in the amount of fresh food consumed,
ut, as a given weight of the fresh sewaged grass contained cod-
siderably less dry or solid substance than an equal amount of
the unsewaged, it resulted that considerably more milk was
obtained from a given quantity of the dry or solid substance of
the sewaged than of the unsewaged grass.

" The question arises, was there any difference in the compo-
sition of the dry or solid matter of the two kinds of grass such as
may be supposed to account for the greater productiveness, at
any rate in milk, of that from the sewaged land ? The following
Summary Table relates to this point.

" Table VIII. — Showing the mean Composition (per cent.) of the Dry Sub-
stance of the Grass produced without and with Sewage, and in eich
successive Crop.

First Season, 1861.

Without and with Sewago.

Each raooesdve Crofk.

Un-
sewaged.

Sewaged.

1st

2nd
Crop.

ard

Orop.

4tll

cw^

PlotL

Plot 2.

Plots. Hot 4.

Number of Analyses )
givlnK the means . )

9 9

Nitrogenous substance )
(NX6-3) . . . }

TtXij matter (other ex- )
txact) . . . . }

Woodyflbro ....

other iioii-]iltn)eeDOVi8)
■obstaiioes ... 5

•

Mineral matter (aah). .

13- us

3-21
28£0
45*66

9-25

18-67

3*34
29*34
3709

11-36

18-92

8*53
80-15
85-94

11-46

19-78

8-44

29- 13
85-92

11-78

10-33

3-01
30*80
47-79

8-07

18-07

3*60
28-45
38-28

11-60

28-76

3*65

28-50
80*84

I&-25

S8-»

3*8«
S8-60

14-7I

100*00

100-00 10000 100-00

100*00

160-00

100-01

*' The figures in this Table do indeed show a considerable dif-
nence in the compoaitiou of the dry substance of the ansewa|^

Utiluation of Town Seioage, 21

and the sewaged grass ; and those in the Tables of detail

show that the great bulk of the produce varied more than the
mere mean results here given would indicate.

^^ The chief point of remark is, that the solid matter of the
much more luxuriant and succulent sewaged grass contained a
considerably higher proportion of nitrogenous substance than that
of the unsewaged. It also contained somewhat more, both of the
impure waxy or fatty matter extracted by ether, and of mineral
matter, which may be taken to indicate a less advanced or ripe
condition at the time of cutting. But, owing to the generally
less ripe and more succulent condition of the sewaged than the
unsewaged grass, it is highly probable that a larger proportion of
its nitrogenous substance was in an immatured condition ; and,
so far as it was so, it would be less available for the formation
of the nitrogenous compounds of flesh or milk. It would at any
rate be unsafe, without further evidence on the point, to attribute
the higher milk-yielding quality of the dry substance of the
sewaged grass unconditionally to its higher proportion of nitro-
genous substance ; and, it may be remarked that, according to
such a rule, a given weight of the dry substance of the third and
fourth crops should be very much more productive than an equal
quantity of that of the first ; for the Table shows that there was
twice or thrice as high a proportion of nitrogenous substance in
the solid matter of the crops grown late in the season as in that of
those grown in the earlier and more geni?il periods of vegetation.
Nor is the evidence at present at command such as to justify the
conclusion that the superior milk-yielding quality of the dry
substance of the sewaged grass is essentially connected either
with its larger proportion of impure fatty, or of mineral matter.
That the greater succulence of sewaged grass conduces at least to
quantity of milk, experience seems to show ; and that the con-
stituents of its solid matter are in a readily convertible condition,
the results of this first season's experiments on the question seem
clearly to indicate.

** It remains to be seen how far the results of a second year's
series of experiments, conducted with the greater attention to
some points of detail which past experience suggests, will serve
to confirm, modify, or further explain the conclusions to which
the results given in this section seem to point.

" VI. Composition of the Milk yielded from t/ie Unsewaged and

from the Sewaged Grass.

** Once a week, during the greater part of the experimental
period, the morning and evening milk of the two cows fed on
unsewaged grass was mixed together, and a gallon sample of the

Utilisation of Town Sewage.

mixture taken. Samples of the milk from the ten cows fed on
se waged grass were taken in the same way. These samples were
immediately put into bottles filled up to the corks and sealed
down, and sent off the same evening by railway to Professor Waj
for analysis."

[There were in all 13 samples of the milk from the cows fed
on unse waged g^rass, and 15 of that from those fed on sewaged
gnasy taken as above described, and the results of the analyses of
the 28 samples are given in the Appendix to the Repoxt of the
Commission. *]

'' In the following Summary Table (IX.) are given, — the mean
composition of nine samples of milk taken from the cows fed on
unsewaged grass alone, and of ten taken from those fed on
sewaged grass alone ; the mean of four samples from each lot of
cows during the concluding four weeks, when they had oilcake
as well as g^ass ; and also the composition of the milk of the ten
cows taken on one occasion during the experiment, when, owing
to a deficiency of the experimental grass at the time, they had,
for a short time, a mixture of sewaged Italian rye-grass and
clover, and a little oilcake besides.

" Tadle IX. — Mean Composition of the Milk, per Gent.

Season 1861.

Cowl fed OD Qnm atone.

Gowa fed oo Oraii and
Olloake.

OowBftdeii
SewafBi

Clover.

andOOoake;

IfiMaplB.

Untewaged;

Mean of

9fiample8.

Sewaged;

Mean of

lOSamptee.

Uniewaged;

Mean of
48ain|flea.

8ewi«ed;

Mean of

48HBplea.

Casein

Batter

Sugar of milk» &c . .
MiDeral matter

3*246
3-604
4*406
0*753

3*241
3*430
4*218
0*776

3*352
8*657
4*561
0*740

3*423

3* 707
4*689
0*771

3*12S
3-473
4*700
0*752

Total solid matter
Water

12*008
87*992

11-665
88*335

12-310
87*690

12*590
87*410

12-050
87*950

100*000 • 100-000

100*000

^* There is apparently but little difference between the average
composition of the milk yielded from the unsewaged and ^e
sewaged grass, whether they be respectively consumed alone, or

* In the Appendix to the Beport of the Commianon win slio be Ibmmi the
retolti of the analyses of the indiTidoal samples of graai, and the detaQs of Ihe
sewage applied, the produce of grass obtained, and of Uie food ooMUMd, and
milk sod increase jieVdiid \fi t]h« minaXa.

Utilisation of Town Sewoffe. 28

in conjunction with oilcake. That from the se waged and more
succulent grass is slightly more aqueous, and contains slightly
less of the organic constituents— casein, butter, and sugar of
milk — and slightly more of mineral matter, during the early part
of the seascMQ, when the cows had *grass alone ; but these relations
are reversed during the four weeks when oilcake was given in
addition. The addition of the oilcake, both in the case of the
unsewaged and of the sewaged grass, but particularly in that of
the latter, notably increased the proportion of the three organic
constituents, and of the total solid matter of the milk, but
somewhat diminished that of the mineral matter. Again, com-
paring the figures in the second and the fifth columns, those in
the latter giving the composition of the milk when, for a few
days only during the progress of the experiment, the diet of the
cows was changed from sewaged grass alone to sewaged Italian
rye-grass and clover, with oilcake in addition, the influence of.
the oilcake is seen to be of the same kind as already alluded to
— increasing generally the proportion of the organic constituents,
and of the total solid matter of the milk, and diminishing
somewhat that of the mineral matter.

" Conclusions.

'^ Subject to the reservations which have been indicated, the
results of the first season's experiments may be briefly enume-
rated as follows : —

^^ 1. By the application of large quantities of dilute town
sewage to permanent meadow land during the spring and summer
months, there was obtained an average increase of about 4 tons
of green g^ss (which, owing to the lower proportion of dry
substance in the sewaged grass, was equal to only about three-
fourths of a ton of hay) for each 1000 tons of sewage applied, until
the amount of the latter approached the rate of about 9000 tons
per acre per annum. The largest produce obtained was about
33 tons of green grass per acre. The period of the year over
which an abundance of green food was available was, with the
largest amount of sewage, between five and six months.

'^ 2. Oxen tied up under cover, and fed on cut green grass
alone, whether sewaged or unsewaged, gave a far lower rate of
increase than the average attained by animals fed on ordinary
good fattening food ; but when for a few weeks oilcake was given in
addition to the grass, they yielded a good average rate of increase.

^' 3. Cows tied up under cover, and fed on cut green grass
alone, after previously receiving oilcake, fell off considerably in
their yield of milk, and about equally whether the grass were
sewaged or unsewaged. The cows on unsewaged grass consumed
more food and gave more milk, in relation to their weight, than

24 Utilisation of Town Sewage.

those on se waged grass ; but the amount of milk yielded for a
gpiven amount of fresh food consumed was almost identical in the
two cases ; though, in proportion to the dry or solid matter
which the food contained, the sewaged grass yielded considerably
more milk than the unsewaged.' Milk to the gross value of 32/.
per acre was obtained where the largest quantity of sewage was
applied. The g^oss value of the milk from the increased produce
of each 1000 tons of sewage was between 5/. and 6/.

" 4. The composition of the Rugby sewage-water varied very
much during the course of the season, being much more concen-
trated during the drier months. On the average, over about
seven months, 1000 tons of sewage contained about 21^ cwts.,
or little more than one ton of solid matter ; about 212 lbs. of
ammonia, or about as much as is contained in 11 cwts. of
Peruvian guano ; and probably represented the excrements of
21 or 22 individuals of a mixed population of both sexes and all
ages for a year. This average composition agrees very closely
with that which published analyses indicate for the sewage of
London.

^' 5. On the average the sewaged grass contained, as cut, a
considerably lower proportion of dry or solid substance than the
unsewaged ; but the dry substance of the sewaged grass generally
contained a higher proportion of nitrogenous compounds.

" 6. Analysis shows very little difference in the quality of the
milk yielded respectively from sewaged and unsewaged grass.
The difference in composition, such as it is, is slightly in favour
of the milk from the unsewaged grass when grass was given
alone, and slightly in favour of the sewaged grass when oilcake
was given in addition."

Nothing has tended more to prevent a proper understanding
between town and country — the producers of sewage and the
consumers of manure — as to the commercial value of sewage,
and the best manner of utilising it, than the very exaggerated
statements which are from time to time put forth on tlie subject
Only a few weeks ago an anonymous pamphlet, pretending to be
in the interest of the urban rate-payers, was published, which
quotes an estimate, professedly founded on scientific authority,
tnat the sewage of London, reckoning the prospective population
at 3,000,000, will be worth something over 10,000,000£ sterling
per annum I

It required an expenditure of, I believe, 60,000/1, to satisfy
those who some years ago insisted upon the very high agricul-
tural value of solid manure obtained from sewage by lime, that
the value assigned to it by myself, and others, was ooriect At

Utilisation of Toum Sewage. 25

present there are no advocates for the manufacture of a solid
manure from dilute town sewage. The controversy now lies
between those who would distribute it in small quantities over
enormous areas, and apply it to' all crops, and those who would
employ it in large quantities over comparatively small areas,
and confine its application almost exclusively to succulent crops.

As already referred to, the " Select Committee on the
Sewage of Towns " in their " Analysis of Evidence " give it as
their opinion '' that sewage is applicable to all crops, and that if
commercial results are sought for, it should be applied in small
dressings." I have very carefully considered the evidence given
before that Committee, and I must confess that neither can I
endorse the opinion just quoted, nor do I think there are many
acquainted with agriculture who will think it borne out by the
evidence when they have themselves perused it.

I have not the slightest doubt that any attempt to apply the
sewage of London in its present average state of dilution, or that
of any other town similarly diluted, to crops generally, and in
quantities of a few hundred tons per acre, will result either in
great pecuniary loss to those who invest their capital in supplying
the sewage, or in signal failure, and perhaps pecuniary loss also,
to those who, like Mr. Campbell, Mr. Congreve, and Mr. MuUins,
the Rugby tenants, may purchase it for distribution in the manner
proposed.

On the average, one ton of the sewage of London or Rugby
contains only from 2 to 3 lbs. of solid matter, of which only
about half, or less, will consist of the valuable constituents of
human excrements ; and with the progress of sanitary arrange-
ments as at present generally carried out, the dilution appears to
be daily increasing. It will be quite obvious, at any rate to
most agriculturists, that the fact of having to bring upon the
land such an enormous quantity of water in order to supply
such a small amount of manurial matter, must materially
affect the applicability of such manure to land under tillage,
the cost at which a given amount of constituents can be brought
on to the land, and their productive value when there. In
fact, it is clearly quite fallacious to assume the general applica-
bility to all crops, of manure so diluted, from any considera-
tions as to the applicability of the same constituents in the undi-
luted form.

The agriculturist would, indeed, only be justified in con-
tracting for a supply of town sewage at a price far below the
estimates of those who propose to deliver it to him ; and, taking
into consideration not only the great, but the varying, and
perhaps increasing dilution of sewage, the question of the com-
position as well as the amount of the sewage supplied, must fotrcL

Utilisation of Town Sewage.

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Full text of "The Rothamsted memoirs on agricultural chemistry and physiology"

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